From seal script to official script, cursive script, regular script and running script. Each stage produced a large number of calligraphers and calligraphy works, which constituted the profound tradition of China's calligraphy. China's calligraphy is a mature art in ancient times, with a rich, complete and consistent theoretical system. Many theoretical works are the summary of calligraphers' artistic practice, which greatly influenced the calligraphy learning and creation of later generations.
Pre-Qin era
Oracle Bone Inscriptions, who carved the tortoise shell, generally believed that the history of China's calligraphy can be traced back to the origin of Chinese characters. There is no definite evidence about the appearance and formation period of primitive Chinese characters, but the earliest mature Chinese character form found at present is Oracle Bone Inscriptions. Oracle Bone Inscriptions is a Chinese character with some hieroglyphs. Since the discovery of Oracle Bone Inscriptions in19th century, more than 6,543,800 pieces of Oracle bones have been unearthed. Oracle Bone Inscriptions began to be the object of people's artistic appreciation. From these Oracle Bone Inscriptions, we found the elements of China's calligraphy: the structure and layout of Chinese characters.
Bronzes were widely used in Shang and Zhou Dynasties. Some bronzes are also engraved with words, which are called bronze inscriptions by later generations. Because most bronzes engraved with words are Zhong and Ding, the inscriptions on bronzes are also called. Most of these words engraved on Zhong Ding describe the national political and social life of emperors, princes and nobles at that time, such as sacrificial ceremonies, hunting, exploration, imperial edicts and knighthood.
It is generally believed that inscriptions on bronze inscriptions are the main form of Chinese characters after Oracle Bone Inscriptions. The early bronze inscriptions retained many features similar to Oracle Bone Inscriptions's style, but later they gradually alienated and became more and more independent. Some people think that bronze inscriptions have their own independent origins, even before Oracle Bone Inscriptions. It is only because of the Zhou people's "extremes meet" (Book of Rites) that Oracle Bone Inscriptions, who was mainly used to inquire about ghosts and gods, was not paid as much attention as in Shang Dynasty, which led to the decline of Oracle Bone Inscriptions and the prevalence of bronze inscriptions.
The Western Zhou Dynasty was the heyday of bronze inscriptions. The bronze inscriptions in this period are thick, vigorous, elegant and magnificent, and the representative works are Mao, Da and Pan. Among them, Mao had a great influence on later calligraphers. Li Ruiqing, a calligrapher in the Qing Dynasty, even said: "Mao was written in the temple of the Zhou Dynasty, and his text is Shangshu; Learning books does not learn from Mao Dinggong, and Confucian scholars do not read history. " This sentence shows that Mao regards Ding Gong as a "compulsory course" for learning calligraphy.
At the end of the Zhou Dynasty, inscriptions began to appear on stone objects such as stone drums, stone tablets and cliffs, which were called stone carvings by later generations. Stone inscriptions show some characteristics different from bronze inscriptions, but both bronze inscriptions and stone inscriptions belong to "Da Zhuan". The earliest and most representative stone carving is Shi Guwen.
During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, bamboo slips and wooden slips were widely used as the main writing materials. From the user's point of view, because bamboo slips are cheap, characters can only be mastered by ordinary civilians from now on. Only when the main groups of writing and learning begin to change from people with specialized skills to ordinary people. And China's calligraphy began to have a broader life foundation.
During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, China was politically divided. Before Qin Shihuang unified the six countries, there were differences in writing, currency and weights and measures among the vassal States. Due to historical reasons, the development of Chinese characters has appeared two routes: folk and official. Therefore, from Dazhuan to Xiaozhuan, the development process of specific forms of Chinese characters is not a linear and consistent process. Later, people found the original official script in the bamboo slips of this period.
In line with the wide use of bamboo slips, the brush has also begun to be used as the main direct writing tool. In the next two thousand years, the writing brush has been the main writing tool of China people. Writing with a brush became an important feature of China's calligraphy, and the overall appearance of China's calligraphy took shape.
Qin and Han dynasties
Mount Tai is a secluded mountain carving, which is said to have been written by Li Si. In 22 1 year BC, Qin Shihuang unified the six countries and established the Qin Dynasty. In order to consolidate the rule, the Qin Dynasty took a series of measures to eliminate various institutional differences between the former vassal states, including "the same document" (Historical Records and Biography of Li Si), that is, unifying the different characters used by the former vassal states into Xiao Zhuan.
Xu Shen, a philologist in the Eastern Han Dynasty, described this period of history in the Preface of Explaining Words, saying: "At the beginning of Qin Shihuang, Prime Minister Li Si played with it, which was inconsistent. Cang Xie was written, Zhao Gao was ordered by CRRC to write a calendar, and Hu Wujing was ordered by Mahavamsa to write a scholarship. They are all printed in the Book of Poetry, or they are quite preserved, so-called small prints. " This shows that Xiao Zhuan is a standard Chinese character form formed by arranging the characters of the vassal States at that time under the inspiration of the emperor and the responsibility of several ministers at that time. Because of Li Si's great fame in calligraphy, later generations also called Xiao Zhuan "Li Xiaosi Zhuan", believing that Xiao Zhuan was a font invented by Li Si alone.
Xiao zhuan is the first and only standardized Chinese character form stipulated by the state in China. Judging from the font style, it has the characteristics of standardization, neatness and beauty. It has been loved by calligraphers for more than 2,000 years after the demise of the Qin Dynasty, and almost all generations have seen people who are good at writing Xiao Zhuan.
In addition, seal cutting was also the first choice for making official seals in feudal dynasties in China, and seal cutting was developed under the influence of this aspect.
The most popular font in Han Dynasty is official script, so "Han Li" is regarded as a model of official script. It is generally believed that the origin of official script can be traced back to the Warring States period, and it had been roughly formed in the Qin Dynasty. Xiao Zhuan's strokes are round and symmetrical, which is beautiful to write, but the book is slow to read and can't meet the requirements of fast writing in real life. Lishu simplifies the strokes and writing of Xiao Zhuan, so it is widely used.
The invention and popularization of official script is a great change in the history of Chinese characters and calligraphy in China. It is generally believed that official script is the watershed of ancient and modern Chinese characters. Lishu in Han Dynasty is very close to modern Chinese characters in strokes and structure. In fact, after the appearance of official script, the fonts of Chinese characters are similar to those of official script as a whole, but far from those before Xiao Zhuan. This is because in the era before the emergence of official script, because of the insufficient demand for written records in social life and the expensive writing materials, few people could master the recognition and writing of Chinese characters. The popularity of Chinese character recognition and writing promoted the emergence of official script, and the use of official script in turn promoted the recognition and writing of Chinese characters. Therefore, official script is a practical font, which is also the difference between it and previous fonts. It is also for this reason that after the appearance of other fonts, Lishu has not withdrawn from the daily practical field.
The existing works of Han Li are mainly handed down in the form of stone carvings, inscriptions and bamboo slips. Famous works include: Stone Carving by Lai Zihou, Cliff Opening on Appreciation Road, Stone Carving by Lu, etc. Inscriptions include Ode to Shimen, Monument to Yiying, Ode to Xihuang, Ode to Gao, Monument to the Book of Rites, Monument to Confucius Temple, Monument to Huashan, Cao Quanbei, Zhang Qianbei and Shijing of Xiping. Silk books and bamboo slips include Mawangdui silk books in Changsha, Juyan bamboo slips and Wuwei bamboo slips. Almost none of these works can be verified by the author, except Xiping Shijing, which is said to be written by Cai Yong, a calligrapher in the Eastern Han Dynasty.
In addition, in addition to the mainstream font official script, cursive script also appeared in the Han Dynasty, as well as the original regular script and running script. Cursive script is a font written with simplified strokes and faster speed when writing official script. Zhang Gaozu liked cursive script very much, so the cursive script at this time was also called "Cao Zhang". At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhang Zhi was the first famous cursive master. He further simplified the early cursive script into "modern cursive script".
Three kingdoms Wei and Jin dynasties
By the time of the Three Kingdoms, Wei and Jin Dynasties, most of the popular Chinese fonts in China had appeared. During this period, the five basic fonts of seal script (including big seal script and small seal script), official script, cursive script, regular script and running script have basically matured, among which three fonts of cursive script, regular script and running script have made unprecedented development. Since then, the invention of China fonts has basically stopped, and China calligraphy began to develop with famous calligraphers and schools as the main line, and gradually there was a formal calligraphy theory. At the same time, it is time for China people to consciously create and appreciate calligraphy works. Pei Songzhi quoted the calligrapher Lu Wu's "The Elephant of the Emperor" as saying: "The word" The Elephant of the Emperor "is Daming, a native of Jiangdu, Guangling, and a young worker's book. "This shows that being good at calligraphy is a skill worthy of being included in history books.
More importantly, some calligraphers appeared in this period, which had a great influence on later generations. Many of their works are regarded as classics of China's calligraphy by later generations. Zhong You, a calligrapher in the Three Kingdoms period, was good at regular script, and his short book "Declaration Form" was praised as "the ancestor of official script" by later generations. Zhang Huaiguan, a calligraphy theorist in the Tang Dynasty, praised him in the Book End: "Easy-to-swim calligraphy is unique to Cao and Cai Yong, and it combines rigidity with softness. There are many different interests between stippling and painting, which can be described as profound and boundless, quaint and redundant. Since the Qin and Han Dynasties, there has been only one person. "
Wang Xizhi's Preface to Lanting is known as "the best running script in the world". Wang Xizhi of the Eastern Jin Dynasty is recognized as the most outstanding calligrapher in the history of calligraphy in China, and is known as the "sage of calligraphy". His running script "Preface to Lanting" is one of the most artistic works in the history of calligraphy in China, and is called "the best running script in the world" by later generations. Influenced by Wang Xizhi, his sons Wang Huizhi, Wang Xuanzhi, Wang Xianzhi and grandson Wang Chunzhi are all good at calligraphy. In particular, Wang Xianzhi is as famous as his father, and they are both called "Two Kings". In addition to Zhong You and Wang Xizhi, who are famous for their calligraphy, there were also some famous people who were quite accomplished in calligraphy at that time, such as Wang Dao, Xie An and Yu Liang, ministers of the Eastern Jin Dynasty, and Dian Dao, a hermit. In addition, a female calligrapher, Mrs. Wei, appeared. She was Wang Xizhi's early teacher.
In calligraphy theory, Zhong You's brushwork, Mrs. Wei's brushwork, Wei Heng's four-body calligraphy, Wang Xizhi's self-discussion, Mrs. Wei's brushwork, Mr. Baiyun's calligraphy strategy and Suo Jing's cursive script are all summaries of calligraphers' calligraphy practice. Yang Xin's Distinguishing the Names of Ancient Calligraphers is the first list of calligraphers in the history of calligraphy in China.
It is generally believed that the Wei and Jin Dynasties was the first peak of China's calligraphy. Because people in Wei and Jin Dynasties advocated verve and tolerance, later generations used "Shang Yun" to summarize the overall style of China's calligraphy in this period.
Southern and Northern Dynasties
Printed and handwritten Wei Ti regular script: the upper left corner is printed font, and the rest are rubbings of inscriptions. The Southern and Northern Dynasties began in 420 AD when the Southern Song Dynasty replaced the Eastern Jin regime, and ended in 589 AD when the Sui Dynasty perished in Nanchen. During the intervening 160 years, several regimes have appeared in the north and south of China, one after another or in parallel, which has always been a situation of confrontation between the two regimes.
Calligraphy in the Southern and Northern Dynasties inherited the achievements since Wei and Jin Dynasties and continued to develop, especially regular script. However, the styles of the Southern Dynasties and the Northern Dynasties also showed obvious differences. In the Qing Dynasty, Liu Xizai commented in the Outline of Arts and Literature: "Wen Ya in the south and vigorous in the north"; "Northern books win with bones, while southern books win with rhyme".
Due to the frequent wars in this period, most of the calligraphy works handed down from the Northern and Southern Dynasties are inscriptions and epitaphs except a small amount of ink and classics. Calligraphy in the Southern Dynasties inherited more from the Eastern Jin Dynasty, and the main works handed down from generation to generation are as follows: the inscriptions on the tablet are "Yan Yan Bei" and "He"; Epitaphs include Liu Huaimin's epitaph, Lu Chaojing's epitaph, Liu Dai's epitaph and Princess Muzhao's epitaph. The ink marks are Prince Xie Ren's Post written by Wang Sengqian in the Southern Dynasties and Zunti Anhe's Post written by Wang Ci. Scripture writing is the result of the prosperity of Buddhism in the Southern Dynasties. His main works include Pu Xian Buddhist Music Sutra in Southern Dynasties, Huayan Sutra in Southern Dynasties, Prajna Paramita Sutra and so on. There are many inscriptions in the Northern Dynasties, among which Wei Bei's achievement is the most remarkable, and he is one of the models of regular script calligraphy. For example, the statues known as the "Four Products of Longmen", the stone statues, the statues of Sun Qiusheng and Wei Lingzang are only a small part of them. There are an unprecedented number of epitaphs in the Northern Dynasties, including Yuan Huai's epitaph, Zhang Hei's epitaph and Cui Jingyang's epitaph.
Most of the works handed down in the Northern and Southern Dynasties can't be verified by their authors, which shows the prosperity of calligraphy art, and there are also many famous calligraphers with handed down surnames. The Southern Dynasties mainly included Yang Xin, Ye Fan, Wang Sengqian, Xiao Ziyun, Xiao Yan and Tao Hongjing. Northern dynasties, Zheng Daozhao, Zhao, Wang, etc. Among them, Xiao Yan was the founding emperor of Nanliang and a famous calligrapher of the emperor. Ye Fan, Wang Sengru and Xiao Ziyun are writers, while Tao Hongjing is a medical scientist.
Calligraphy in the Southern and Northern Dynasties directly influenced the calligraphy style in the Sui and Tang Dynasties. During the Sui and Tang Dynasties, calligraphers Zhi Yong, Ou Yangxun and Yu Shinan took the method directly from the inscriptions in the Southern and Northern Dynasties, while in the Qing Dynasty, a school of "epigraphy" was established that respected the inscriptions and epitaphs in the Southern and Northern Dynasties.
Sui, Tang and Five Dynasties
Sui and Tang Dynasties is another long-lasting unification period in the history of China since Qin and Han Dynasties, which has reached another peak since Qin and Han Dynasties in many aspects. As the main system for selecting officials, the imperial examination system was formally established in the Sui and Tang Dynasties, and intellectuals, regardless of their origins, can enter official positions through the imperial examination. In terms of literature, poems include Du Lishi's Biography through the Ages, and essays include Han Yu's The Decline of Eight Generations. Similarly, the art of calligraphy, which focuses on poetry and prose, has also been loved and practiced by many scholars.
The Sui Dynasty was established for a short time, and there were many factors that inherited the calligraphy of the Southern and Northern Dynasties in style. However, the regular script in Sui Dynasty gradually became upright and regular as a whole, showing an atmosphere of integrating different calligraphy styles in Northern and Southern Dynasties. Zhiyong was a representative figure of calligraphy in Sui Dynasty, and his calligraphy had a great influence on Yu Shinan, one of the four schools in the early Tang Dynasty. His masterpiece "True Grass Thousand Characters" is not only rarely used by people who study calligraphy in the Tang Dynasty, but also one of the commonly used models for people to learn regular script and cursive script. The epitaph of Sui Dynasty, represented by Dong's epitaph, is considered as a connecting link between the Northern Wei Dynasty and the Tang Dynasty.
Li Shimin, Emperor Taizong, loved calligraphy, especially Wang Xizhi's works. He once collected Wang Shu with a huge sum of money and buried the Preface to Lanting in Zhaoling after his death. His hobby contributed to the prosperity of calligraphy art in the Tang Dynasty, and the calligraphy style of Wang Xizhi's school has been in the mainstream position for a long time in the history of calligraphy, which is also inseparable from Li Shimin's admiration for Wang Shu. Li Shimin's own calligraphy is also praised by later generations, and his running script "Jinci Ming" is the earliest running script tablet found at present.
The rubbings of Liu Gongquan's regular script Mysterious Tower (partial). The achievements of the Tang Dynasty in regular script are praised by later generations. Tang Kai is famous for his rigorous overall style. He is as famous as Qin Zhuan and Han Li in the history of calligraphy in China, and is one of the models of handwritten Chinese characters. There were many calligraphers who were good at regular script in Tang Dynasty, which had a far-reaching influence on later generations. Yu Shinan, Chu Suiliang, Ou Yangxun and Xue Ji are also called "Four Schools in Early Tang Dynasty", and they are all good at writing regular script. Yan Zhenqing's regular script is called "Yan Ti". Most of his previous regular script styles were characterized by "thin and hard", while Yan style was full and vigorous, so he was regarded as a regular script reformer and the most influential master in the history of calligraphy since Wang Xizhi. Liu Gongquan is also a master of regular script, and he is also called "Yan Liu" with Yan Zhenqing; His regular script is called "Liu Ti", which is also one of the most popular regular script fonts.
The achievements of calligraphy in Tang Dynasty are various. Besides regular script, cursive script, running script and seal script also have many calligraphers and works. Zhang Xu and Huai Su, known as "getting drunk", are the two most famous cursive masters in the Tang Dynasty. They created the most elegant cursive script "Crazy Grass". During the Xuanzong period of Tang Dynasty, Zhang Xu's cursive script, Li Bai's poems and songs, and Pei Min's sword dance were called "Three Musts". In addition, Li Yong's calligraphy tablet, Li's seal script tablet, and Sun's cursive "Book Score" are all very famous works.
In calligraphy theory, the Tang Dynasty was also fruitful: Sun's Book Score is not only a complete calligraphy work, but also a systematic calligraphy theory work. Ou Yangxun's "Thirty-six Methods" mainly expounds the strokes and structure of calligraphy. Yan Zhenqing's Twelve Meanings of Calligraphy embodies the comprehensiveness of Zhang Xu's calligraphy cultivation, and also illustrates the theoretical inheritance relationship of calligraphers in the Tang Dynasty. Zhang Huaiguan was the most knowledgeable calligraphy theorist at that time. He is the author of Yi Shu, Shuduan, Shuowen Jiezi and Liu Ti Calligraphy. Shuduan is one of the most famous theoretical works in the history of calligraphy. This paper mainly expounds the invention and evolution of various fonts of Chinese characters, and evaluates more than 20 calligraphers from Qin and Han Dynasties to that time. The Book Score compiled by Zhang Yanyuan is a collection of China and calligraphy theory's works, which brings together more than 30 kinds of China's calligraphy legal works from the Eastern Han Dynasty to Tang Chaoyuan.
Calligraphy in the Tang Dynasty has reached a peak since the Jin Dynasty, so it is often called "Jin Tang" by later generations. However, many people who studied calligraphy in later generations started from the Tang Dynasty, studied beauty, Europe, Chu and Yu, and then traced back to the Jin Dynasty, and directly adopted the method of "two kings". Generally speaking, calligraphy in the Tang Dynasty advocated statutes, which provided rules and methods for future generations to learn calligraphy. On the other hand, overemphasizing statutes would inhibit people's creativity and cause some negative effects.
After the demise of the Tang Dynasty, the history of China was once again divided and combined, which lasted for more than half a century (907 -960). During the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, wars continued, people's livelihood was depressed, and romance swept the floor. Later, Su Shi commented on the calligraphy creation in this period and said: "Since Liu Yan's family was gone, the brushwork declined, and the chaos in the late Tang Dynasty led to the decline of characters, literary talent and sweeping the floor." Yang Gong has a unique style and outstanding calligraphy, including' Two Kings' and Yan Liu. This is really a hero of the book, not lost by the times. "Due to the influence of politics and economy, the calligraphy creation in the Five Dynasties and Ten Countries was relatively deserted. Generally inherited the calligraphy style of the Tang Dynasty, but changed. Yang Ningshi himself, a representative figure, was a scholar in the Tang Dynasty. He studied Ou Yangxun and Yan Zhenqing's calligraphy in his early years, and later Wang Xizhi's father and son. His calligraphy style has changed from regular to relaxed, which is refreshing. Most calligraphers in Song Dynasty admired Yang Ningshi, and Yang Ningshi played a connecting role in the calligraphy style of Tang and Song Dynasties. Yang Ningshi's masterpiece "Jiuhua Tie" created the precedent of advocating "interest" in calligraphy in Song Dynasty.
Song Dynasty and Liao and Jin Dynasties
In 960 AD, Zhao Kuangyin established the Song Dynasty, which ended the situation of the five dynasties and ten countries split and scuffled. The Song Dynasty was founded for more than 300 years (960-1279), and the society was relatively stable in most periods. Because the imperial court carried out the policy of "valuing literature over martial arts", the Song Dynasty was often unable to resist the intrusion of the northern regime, but it made great achievements in literature, art, science and technology, philosophy and so on.
At the beginning of Song Dynasty, continuous wars destroyed people's livelihood, and Song Taizu was a typical soldier from all walks of life. Although the system of emphasizing the rule of the people was implemented at the suggestion of the minister, the prosperity of literature and art was not achieved overnight. Ouyang Xiu, a writer, once said with emotion: "The prosperity of books is not in the Tang Dynasty, and the abolition of books is not today." However, the situation changed quickly. Cai Xiang, Su Shi, Huang Tingjian and Mi Fei appeared one after another and were collectively called "Song Sijia" by later generations. Calligraphy was brilliant in Song Dynasty.
Facing the achievements of calligraphy in Tang Dynasty, calligraphers in Song Dynasty made some changes and breakthroughs. Su Shi summed up the characteristics of his calligraphy and said, "I can't write books with my heart, but I'm tired of asking for books." Contrary to the practice of advocating calligraphy statutes in the Tang Dynasty, Su Shi came by faith and pursued personal freedom. Huang Tingjian studied Zhou Yue in his early years, but he was not tacky. Later, he studied under Su Shi, "it was the meaning of the ancients." He is good at running script and cursive script, just like Su Shi. Mi Fei took the deepest effort to inherit the tradition, claiming that his calligraphy was "collecting ancient Chinese characters". He first studied Yan, Liu, Ou and Chu in the Tang Dynasty, and later took Su Shi's advice and began to learn the calligraphy of the Jin Dynasty. This experience of changing from one teacher to another made him innovate on the basis of inheriting tradition. His calligraphy is a combination of traditional statutes and his own personality. Therefore, Dong Qichang, a calligrapher in the Ming Dynasty, said in "Essays on Painting Zen Rooms" that "I tasted the word Mi and thought that the Song Dynasty was the first, after all, it was above Dongpo" and praised his calligraphy. Cai Xiang's calligraphy lacks innovative consciousness because he abides by the laws and regulations of Jin and Tang Dynasties, but he is the longest and most comprehensive person in calligraphy generation and a key figure with transitional nature.
Besides Song Sijia, many scholars, ministers and emperors in Song Dynasty were also good at calligraphy. For example, Ouyang Xiu, Fan Zhongyan, Cai Jing, Evonne, Song Huizong, Zhao Gou, Qin Gui, Yue Fei, Fan Chengda, Lu You, Zhang Xiaoxiang, Zhu, Jiang Kui and Wen Tianxiang. Among them, Song Huizong Evonne deserves special mention. His regular script is thin, straight and self-contained, and is called "fine gold" by later generations.
A poem of Fang, a regular script work of "sparse gold style" China's calligraphy developed to the Song Dynasty, with the peak of Jin and Tang Dynasties ahead. Song people are faced with rich calligraphy heritage to be sorted out and inherited, and their achievements in this respect are also considerable. In 922 AD (the third year of Chunhua, Song Taizong), Chunhua Pavilion Post was the earliest collection of calligraphy posts in China, and was known as the "ancestor of calligraphy posts". "Spring Flower Pavilion Post" contains more than 400 works by calligraphers from three generations to Tang Dynasty 100. The original seal cutting was deeply hidden in the homes of the royal family and princes, and later it flowed into the people in the form of pirated books, which led to a large number of other calligraphy posts, which had a far-reaching impact on later generations. Since then, all kinds of calligraphy posts based on Chunhua Pavilion posts have become models for people to learn calligraphy, and this situation of "post learning" was not broken until the rise of "stele learning" in Qing Dynasty.
Liao, Xixia and Jindu were minority regimes that coexisted with Song Dynasty. Qidan, the predecessor of Liao, was established before the Northern Song Dynasty, and Jin and Xixia were established before the Southern Song Dynasty. These regimes often fought wars with the Song Dynasty regime of the Han nationality, but they were all influenced by the Han culture to varying degrees. The Khitan language in Liao Dynasty was created with reference to Chinese characters, but it was only popular among the Khitans, and most of the ruling class in Liao Dynasty were familiar with Chinese, so the Chinese character culture was also respected in Liao Dynasty, but despite this, there were no famous calligraphers and works handed down in Liao Dynasty. The situation in Xixia and Jin Dynasties was similar to that in Liao Dynasty. Because their words are only passed on among their own nationalities, after the demise of the regime they established, their national words gradually became useless, let alone cultural inheritance.
Yuan Dynasty and Ming Dynasty
300px- Zhao Mengfu _Xingshu.jpg The Yuan Dynasty established by Kublai Khan, a Mongolian, wiped out the last resistance of the Southern Song Dynasty and unified China in 1279. The military strength of the Yuan Dynasty made it a vast territory, but it was able to eliminate the interference of foreign invasion and devote itself to the development of economy and culture. In the early days of the Yuan Dynasty, the imperial examination system was restored and Confucius, the representative of China culture, was respected. However, under the racial system practiced in the Yuan Dynasty, ordinary Han people suffered discrimination and unequal treatment. Many Han scholars are unable to make a difference politically, so they concentrate on painting and calligraphy. On the other hand, intellectuals of other nationalities have also been influenced by them, and some minority calligraphers have appeared.
The most representative calligrapher in Yuan Dynasty was Zhao Mengfu. Zhao Mengfu was born in the imperial clan of Zhao and Song Dynasties, but he was an official in Yuan Dynasty. Zhao Mengfu's achievements in calligraphy are very comprehensive, and his calligraphy style is exquisite, especially regular script, which is called "Zhao Ti", and is as famous as Yan Zhenqing's "Yan Ti", Liu Gongquan's "Liu Ti" and Ou Yangxun's "European Ti", and is still one of the most popular regular script models.
Zhao Mengfu's running script, his own poems. Its word says: it looks like a crane, and the word Panasonic has thousands of poems. I don't ask anything, the clouds are in the sky and the water is in the bottle. Ziang is an old book in the atrium. Zhao Mengfu advocated that learning calligraphy should learn from the strengths of the ancients. Under his influence, scholars in Yuan Dynasty paid more attention to "retro" when learning calligraphy. On the one hand, the calligraphers in Yuan Dynasty took the works of Jin and Tang Dynasties as an example and attached importance to the training of calligraphy basic skills, which was quite different from the purpose of advocating "intentional creation" in Song Dynasty. On the other hand, similar to Zhao Mengfu's own achievements, the calligraphy works in Yuan Dynasty also showed diversity different from the previous generation. Not only calligraphers with high achievements appeared in running script and cursive script, but also the achievements of regular script were higher than those of Song Dynasty. What is even more rare is that calligraphers, such as Cao Zhang, an almost extinct ancient script, have made great efforts to study it and made considerable achievements.
Xian Yushu is as famous as Zhao Mengfu, but its influence is slightly inferior. He is especially good at cursive writing. Zhao Mengfu said, "Yu He's classmate's cursive script is too far away. I want to catch up, but it's gone. The world says that servants can write, and the so-called Buddha is said to be respected. " Besides Zhao Mengfu's modesty, we can also see the high achievements of Yu Shucao's calligraphy. Deng was a calligrapher at that time, good at Cao Zhang, and a rare master who studied this ancient calligraphy style. Conlillo is a little later than Zhao Mengfu, and is also famous for cursive writing. He is a representative of minority calligraphers.
In A.D. 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang proclaimed himself emperor in Yingtianfu and established the Ming Dynasty. In the autumn of the same year, Xu Da, a general of the Ming Dynasty, conquered Dadu, ending the rule of the Yuan Dynasty in the Central Plains. Zhu Yuanzhang was born at the bottom of society and knew well the sufferings of the people. The policy of rest and recuperation was implemented in the early Ming Dynasty, which improved the economy and people's livelihood. Soon, the system of selecting officials in the imperial examination was restored, and later it was required that the imperial examination must be answered in the form of eight-part essay.
The implementation of eight-part essay not only has specific requirements for the format specification of the article, but also has clear guidance for the style of the font used in writing the article, that is, advocating "Taige Style" is not modeled after a calligrapher's work, but the calligraphy style advocated by Ming Dynasty officials, that is, dignified, graceful, standardized and neat style. Because the imperial examination is the main way for ordinary scholars to become officials, writing eight-part essay and practicing Taige style have become their compulsory courses. The result of advocating tiger style is to create a thousand people's side of calligraphy style without personality. Affected by this, except for a few calligraphers such as Song Ke, who was good at Cao Zhang, the overall level of calligraphy in the early Ming Dynasty was not high, and there was no calligrapher who could represent the achievements of calligraphy in the Ming Dynasty.
In the middle of Ming Dynasty, the calligraphy of four literati in Wuzhong, represented by Zhu Yunming, Wen Zhiming, Tang Yin and Wang Chong, reflected the achievements of calligraphy in this period. Zhu Yunming, Tang Yin were all gifted scholars at that time, who moved the world in the name of poetry and prose. Wen and Tang were also contemporary painting giants, and Wang Chong was good at seal cutting. These people have a comprehensive artistic accomplishment and pursue individuality in calligraphy style, which is completely different from Taige calligraphy style, which is compulsory for official career. Zhu Yunming's cursive script is the highest achievement. In the Qing Dynasty, Zhu Hezhang commented on him in Linchi New Street: "I wish Jingzhao grass the right army, but it is full of anger;" The grass is pure and harmonious, and it is dense. yif and Xiao Yuan are comparable to Gong Chu. " Wen Zhiming's Xiao Zhuan is famous all over the world, and his masterpiece Qian Zi Wen is considered to be comparable to Wang Xizhi's Preface to the Holy Teaching. Tang Yin's title is hidden in the picture book, and he mainly learns from Zhao Mengfu, but his brushwork is a little weak. Wang Chong's calligraphy in his later years is unique and unique. Generally speaking, they learn calligraphy from recent generations of calligraphers, such as Zhao Mengfu, Su Shi, Huang Tingjian and Mi Fei. Then follow the example of Chu Suiliang, Yu Shinan, Ou Yangxun and Yan Zhenqing in the Tang Dynasty, and finally learn from Faer and Zhong You, all of which can form their own unique style. This learning path from near to far is still widely imitated by people.
Dong Qichang cursive Du Fu's poems. In the late Ming dynasty, the style of calligraphy changed again, advocating the development of individuality, the most famous of which was the "King of the East, South and North". "Dong", that is, Dong Qichang, was a former minister of Nanjing Ritual Department and prince of Taibao, and was a literary leader at that time. Dong Qichang's artistic accomplishment is comprehensive, and he has made great achievements in calligraphy and painting. He is good at calligraphy and painting identification and collection, and is proficient in Zen. His calligraphy combines the styles of past dynasties and can be a family of his own. Its style is elegant and ethereal, its layout is sparse and symmetrical, and its brush and ink are dry and wet, which is considered as "the masterpiece of ancient law". At the beginning of Qing Dynasty, Emperor Kangxi and Emperor Qianlong appreciated Dong Qichang's calligraphy very much, which made most students who were pursuing fame learn from Shu Dong and seek official positions. "Wang" is Wang Duo, also known as "Wang Duo". Wang Duo is good at cursive writing, and his brushwork is atmospheric. His cursive writing won by imposing manner, which is very different from Wei and Jin Dynasties. Wang Duo became an official in the Qing court after the death of Ming Chengzu, so the world often belittled his character. However, his calligraphy is highly respected in Japan, which is why he is called "the king after Sheng Wang" (Wang Duo is better than Wang Xizhi).
Calligraphy has developed into an independent art in the Ming Dynasty, especially in the late Ming Dynasty. Literati bachelor's degree suffers from bad career, or is unwilling to be an official, and turns to the art of painting and calligraphy, and some even make a living by selling books and paintings. Most of them started from learning the works of the previous generation, and later formed their own style. Everyone can develop their own personality according to their own personality preferences. By the end of Ming Dynasty, represented by Dong Qichang, this development road reached its peak, until the rise of epigraphy in Qing Dynasty.
Qing Dynasty and Republic of China
In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, many calligraphers slowly gave up learning the style of calligraphy in the Jin and Tang Dynasties and turned to learning the ancient official script inscribed in the Han Dynasty. Han Li's inscription belongs to the Left-handed School, with strict statutes, which is the official standard calligraphy style.
A famous calligrapher in the early Qing Dynasty was Jin Nong. His real name is Xinong, his name is Shoumen, his name is Ginger, and his name is Dongxin. Although Jinnong is famous for selling calligraphy and painting, he is also good at calligraphy. His official script Gu Zhuo is thick, and his own style is regular script, calling himself "lacquer calligraphy". His masterpiece is Li Shu's poems. Zheng Xie, whose real name is Kerou and whose real name is Banqiao, is from Xinghua County. He is one of the "Eight Eccentrics of Yangzhou", with three unique skills: poetry, calligraphy and painting. He attached great importance to the combination of poetry, calligraphy and painting, and painted with poetry as the theme, interspersed in the picture, forming an inseparable part. Zheng Zhi, whose real name is Ruqi, was born in Shangyuan, Jiangsu. He is good at poetry, calligraphy and seal cutting. He spent more than 30 years in Hanbei, learned from Hanbei and became a famous minister in Qing Dynasty.
In Qing Dynasty, Fang Shuo wrote an inscription on the pillow sutra. Inscriptions and Postscripts on Cao Shibei.
"At the beginning of the founding of the People's Republic of China, Ren Shan of Zhengjiakou specializes in this body, which is enough for celebrities. When it changes shape, it feels interesting. As for "Lianbian Book", pen and ink have turned into smoke. "
By the middle of Qing dynasty, calligraphy was influenced by textual research, and calligraphers pursued seal script with a longer history. As a result, seal script and official script were revived, and calligraphers used their line interest to write regular script or running script. This new calligraphy style is called "stele study". .......