Chapter 8 of Beijing Normal University Edition-10 Chapter 8 of seventh grade Volume II Human Nutrition
The first section of human food
First, the nutritional composition of food:
The biuret reagent used to detect protein showed purple reaction; Vitamin c was detected by indophenol reagent, which showed fading reaction.
The six nutrients in food include water, inorganic salts, sugar, fat, protein and vitamins.
? Three thermogenic nutrients? Sugar, fat and protein can provide energy, and the main energy substance is sugar.
Second, the role of nutrients in food:
Water: about 60%~70%, the main component of cells;
Inorganic salts: 4% of body weight, which are important substances in human tissues, such as calcium, phosphorus (for bones and teeth) and iron (for hemoglobin);
Sugar: the most important energy substance in human body, and also a component of cells;
Protein: The basic substance that constitutes human cells is an important raw material for human growth and development, tissue renewal and repair;
Fat: energy-supplying substance, which releases the most energy per unit mass; But in general, fat is stored in the body as a spare energy substance;
Vitamins: They do not participate in the formation of human cells, nor provide energy, and the content is small, which plays a regulatory role in human life activities.
Night blindness? Lack of vitamin a; Rickets? Vitamin d deficiency; Burberry? -lack of vitamin b1; Keratitis and dermatitis? Vitamin B2 deficiency; Scurvy-vitamin C deficiency;
Section 2 Digestion of Food and Absorption of Nutrition
First, the digestive tract and digestive glands make up the digestive system.
The digestive system includes digestive tract and digestive glands.
Digestive tract (from top to bottom): mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and anus.
It has the functions of holding, grinding, stirring and conveying.
Digestive glands: (including salivary glands, stomach glands, liver, pancreas and intestinal glands. The digestive gland secretes digestive juice, and most of the digestive juice contains digestive enzymes, which promotes the decomposition of food in the digestive tract. The largest digestive gland is the liver. Digestive juice without digestive enzymes is bile.
Second, the digestion and absorption of food:
Digestion: The process by which the nutrients of food are hydrolyzed into absorbable small molecules in the digestive tube.
Absorption: refers to the process of water, inorganic salts, vitamins and small molecules such as glucose, amino acids, glycerol and fatty acids formed after food digestion. , through the digestive tract mucosal epithelial cells into the blood.
Starch is first decomposed into maltose in the mouth and finally into glucose in the small intestine. Protein is initially decomposed in the stomach and finally decomposed into amino acids in the small intestine. Fat is first emulsified by bile in the small intestine and finally digested into glycerol and fatty acids.
The mouth, pharynx and esophagus have no function of absorbing nutrients. Small intestine: absorbs most nutrients.
Large intestine: absorbs a small amount of water, inorganic salts and some vitamins. Stomach: Absorb some water and alcohol.
The main organ for digestion and absorption is the small intestine, which is suitable for digestion and absorption.
1) The longest section of the digestive tract, the annular folds and small intestinal villi increase the area of digestion and absorption;
2) The villus wall and capillary wall are only composed of a layer of epithelial cells, which is beneficial to the absorption of nutrients;
3) It contains digestive juice, intestinal juice, pancreatic juice and bile, and can digest sugar, protein and fat.
Chapter IX Material Transportation in Human Body
I. Composition and function of blood
Blood containing anticoagulant (sodium citrate) will be stratified. Blood can be divided into plasma (upper yellowish translucent liquid containing fibrinogen) and blood cells. Blood cells can be divided into red cells (lower dark red), white cells and platelets (white material, a thin layer at the junction of the two layers). The most abundant component in plasma is water (90%). The main function of plasma is to transport blood cells, nutrients and wastes.
Check the normal reference value of the project morphological structure.
erythrocyte
(RBC) seedless, dish-shaped male: 5.0? 10 12 pieces/liter
Female: 4.2? 10 12 pieces /L The function of delivering oxygen is too small to cause anemia, so we should eat more foods rich in protein and iron.
hemoglobin
(Hb) ferritin, red, determines the color of blood Male: 120? 160g/l
Female: 1 10? 150g/L combines with oxygen in places with high oxygen content and separates from oxygen in places with low oxygen content.
white blood cell (WBC)
White blood cells have a nucleus.
Various structures (4? 10)? 109 phagocytes /L, the number will increase when the defense and protection functions are inflamed.
blood platelet
(PLT) is irregular in shape and has no nucleus (1? 3)? 10 1 1 tablet /L is used for hemostasis and coagulation. Too little: bleeding.
ABO blood group system includes four blood groups: A, B, AB and O, and blood transfusion is the principle. (If the blood types are incompatible during blood transfusion, the red blood cells in the recipient will aggregate. )
Part II: Blood circulation
First, the blood flow pipeline? boat
Type distribution, functional structure characteristics
Blood flow velocity in elastic cavity of tube wall
Arteries are located deep in the body and carry blood from the heart to the whole body. They are thick, small and fast.
Deep veins or superficial veins send blood from the whole body back to the heart, which is thin and small (limbs have valves) and slow.
Blood and tissue cells outside the capillary exchange substances here, which are extremely thin (composed of only one room of epithelial cells), tiny and extremely slow (only red blood cells are allowed to pass through in a single line).
Second, the power organ that transports blood? Heart (located in the middle of the chest to the left)
Four chambers of the heart and connected blood vessels;
Left ventricle? Aortic right ventricle? Pulmonary artery and left atrium? Pulmonary vein, right atrium? Superior and inferior vena cava
The left ventricular wall is the thickest.
Location, opening direction and blood flow direction of atrioventricular valve, arterial valve and venous valve:
The open position ensures the direction of blood flow.
The atrioventricular valve opens the atrium to the ventricle between the atrium and the ventricle? room
Between the aortic valve and the artery, open the ventricle to the artery? artery
The venous valve opens the vein in the direction of the limb vein to the heart? external ear
When the ventricle contracts, the atrioventricular valve closes and the arterial valve opens. When the ventricle relaxes, the arterial valve closes and the atrioventricular valve opens. There's no valve in the artery.
Output per minute = output per stroke х heart rate (75 beats per minute)
The output per minute, also called cardiac output, is an index to measure the working energy of the heart.
Cardiac cycle (0.8S)=60 seconds (one minute)? Heart rate Every contraction and relaxation of the heart is a cardiac cycle.
In a cardiac cycle, the advantages of diastolic period being longer than systolic period are as follows:
1) is beneficial to blood return to the heart.
2) Make the myocardium have enough time to rest.
Blood circulation path
Systemic circulation pathway: left ventricle? Aorta? Various parts of the body and visceral capillaries? Superior and inferior vena cava? right atrium
Pulmonary circulation path: right ventricle? Pulmonary artery? Pulmonary capillaries? Pulmonary vein? left atrium
1) Each cycle begins in the ventricle and ends in the atrium.
2) Arterial blood flows out of systemic circulation and venous blood returns; Venous blood flows out of the pulmonary circulation and arterial blood flows back.
3) Two circulations are carried out at the same time, and finally meet in the heart to form a complete circulatory pathway.
4) At the capillaries of tissues and cells in the whole body: blood changes from arterial blood to venous blood.
At the capillaries of the lungs: blood changes from venous blood to arterial blood.
5) Arterial blood flows on the left side of the heart and venous blood flows on the right side.
Third, blood pressure and pulse.
Blood pressure: the lateral pressure on the blood vessel wall when blood flows forward in the blood vessel.
What we usually call blood pressure is the arterial blood pressure of systemic circulation.
Its expression is: systolic blood pressure/diastolic blood pressure.
It can be measured with a sphygmomanometer at the brachial artery of the upper arm. Its value is usually expressed in kilopascals.
When the heart contracts, the highest value of arterial blood pressure is called systolic pressure. The lowest diastolic arterial blood pressure is called diastolic blood pressure.
The normal systolic blood pressure of healthy adults is 12 ~ 18.7 kPa, and the diastolic blood pressure is 8 ~ 12 kPa.
Pulse refers to the pulse of the artery, the frequency is the same as the heart rate, but the meaning is different. Measured in the radial artery.
Chapter 10 Energy Supply of Human Body
Section 1 release of energy in food
First of all, the energy stored in food
1, heat price: the energy released by each gram of food when it is fully burned in vitro.
2. Sugar: 17. 15KJ
Protein: 23.43KJ
Fat: 38.9 kJ
3. The energy needed for human life activities mainly comes from sugar, followed by fat.
Second, cells release energy through breathing.
1. The process of oxidative decomposition and energy release of glucose in biological cells is respiration.
2. The meaning of breathing is to provide power for life activities.
The process of obtaining oxygen by human cells in the second quarter
First, the respiratory tract and lungs constitute the respiratory system.
1, the human respiratory system consists of respiratory tract and lung.
2, respiratory tract: (nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchus) is the passage of gas in and out of the lungs.
Lung: a place for gas exchange with the outside world, located in the chest, one left and one right, consisting of dendritic branches of bronchioles and alveoli.
3. nose? Nasal cavity (mucosa? Rich capillaries and mucus glands): make the air inhaled into the nasal cavity warm and moist.
4. Throat
(1) pharynx: Qi and food are the same.
(2) Laryngeal: It consists of cartilage and vocal cords.
5, trachea (bronchus): supported by C-shaped cartilage, there are mucus glands on the wall of the tube, and the secreted mucus can adhere to dust; There are cilia on the inner surface of the tube wall, and the cilia swing to push the mucus to the throat and excrete it through coughing. (phlegm)
6, lung (the main organ of the respiratory system, an important place to complete gas exchange)
Alveolus: ① There are many alveoli with a large total area; ② There are abundant capillaries and elastic fibers around alveoli; ③ Alveolar wall and capillary wall are thin, only composed of monolayer cells, which are very suitable for gas exchange.
Second, respiratory exercise and lung ventilation.
Inhalation: Diaphragm contracts, diaphragm top descends, chest volume expands, lung volume increases, gas pressure in lung decreases correspondingly, and gas is inhaled;
Exhale: Diaphragm relaxes, diaphragm top rises, chest volume decreases, lung volume decreases, gas pressure in lung increases correspondingly, and gas is discharged.
Conceptual realization means representation means result.
The process of gas exchange between the outside world and alveoli: breathing, exercise, exhalation and inhalation.
The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide occurs between the alveoli of the lungs and the blood, and the gas diffuses oxygen.
Alveolar blood
Carbon dioxide venous blood becomes arterial blood.
Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between blood and tissue cells. This gas diffuses oxygen.
Blood tissue cells carbon dioxide arterial blood changes venous blood
Seventh grade, the second volume of biological knowledge points, Beijing Normal University Edition 1 1- 12, chapter 11, the discharge of human metabolic waste.
Section 1 Metabolic Waste Produced by Human Body
1. Excretion is a process in which the human body excretes metabolic wastes such as carbon dioxide, urea, excess water and inorganic salts.
2. Metabolic wastes of human body include urea, carbon dioxide, water and inorganic salts. Feces are not metabolic wastes.
3, the way of human excretion:
1) Sweating (skin): a part of water and a small amount of inorganic salts and urea.
2) Exhale (respiratory system): carbon dioxide and a small amount of water.
3) Urination (urinary system): most water, inorganic salts and urea (the most important way of excretion).
4, the meaning of excretion:
1) excretes metabolic waste.
2) Adjust the balance of water and inorganic salts in the body.
3) Maintain the stability of the living environment of cells. Excretion is food residue, not excretion.
Secondly, kidney, ureter, bladder and urethra.
① Kidney: It has the function of forming urine.
② Ureter: conveying urine.
③ Bladder: the function of temporarily storing urine.
④ Urethra: the function of excreting urine.
One of the most important organs is the kidney, and the basic unit of the kidney is the nephron. Each kidney consists of more than 654.38+0 million nephrons.
Kidney can be divided into cortex, medulla and renal pelvis.
Nephron includes renal corpuscles and renal tubules.
Renal corpuscles are composed of glomerulus and renal capsule, which are mainly distributed in cortex. Glomerules are mainly distributed in medulla.
Third, the formation of urine.
1, blood ((water, inorganic salts, urea, blood cells, macromolecular protein, glucose).
? Glomerular filtration (blood cells, macromolecular protein)
? Protourine (water, inorganic salts, glucose, urea) is formed in the renal capsule cavity.
? Renal tubular reabsorption (most water, all glucose, some inorganic salts)
? Form urine (water, inorganic salts, urea, uric acid, etc.). )
Glomerular filtration: In addition to blood cells and macromolecular protein in plasma, some substances such as water, inorganic salts, glucose and urea are filtered into the renal capsule cavity through the glomerular and renal capsule wall to form protourine. The human body forms about 150 liter of raw urine every day.
Re-absorption of renal tubules: When raw urine passes through renal tubules, all glucose, most water and some inorganic salts are re-absorbed into capillaries around renal tubules. The remaining water, inorganic salts and urea form urine. The urine discharged every day is about 1.5 liter.
2. Comparison of main components of plasma, urine and urine.
Inorganic salts of water, protein, glucose, urea and uric acid.
Plasma 900? 930 70? 80 1 0.3 0.04 9.0
Original urine 970 micro 1 0.3 0.04 9.0
Urine 950001.8 0.0511.0
Four, urine discharge:
Kidney (urine production)? Ureter? Bladder (temporary storage) Urethra (excretion)
Five, the significance of urination:
It not only plays a role in discharging waste, but also plays an important role in regulating the content of water and inorganic salts in the body and maintaining the normal physiological function of tissues.
Section 3 Skin and Sweat Secretion
The first is the structure of the skin (skin is also an organ that metabolizes waste)
1. Skin accessories: hair, sweat glands, sebaceous glands, nails, etc.
Hair: protect skin and keep body temperature.
Sweat glands: secrete sweat
Sebaceous glands: Secreted sebum can moisturize the skin.
Nails: Protect fingertips.
2, epidermis: composed of epithelial tissue. No blood vessels. It is divided into stratum corneum and mucus layer.
Cuticle: prevent excessive loss of water in the body. The exfoliated cells are called dander.
Mucous layer: It can divide and produce new cells.
3, dermis: mainly composed of connective tissue. It contains a lot of elastic fibers and collagen fibers. Make the skin have certain elasticity and toughness. It is rich in blood vessels and sensory nerve endings.
Second, the formation and secretion of sweat: (it has an effect on body temperature regulation)
1, sweat is formed in sweat glands.
2. Sweat glands: secretory parts and ducts.
3. When the ambient temperature is high, the capillaries around sweat glands dilate, and the blood flow increases. Sweat is formed by substances such as water, inorganic salts and urea absorbed by sweat gland secretory cells from the blood vessels.
Chapter 12 The self-regulation of human body includes nerve regulation and hormone regulation.
1 ganglion nervous system and neuromodulation
The regulation process in human body is very complicated, which is the regulation function of nervous system and plays the most important role.
A, the composition of the nervous system:
There are two main types of human self-regulation: neuroregulation and hormonal regulation. Among them, neuromodulation plays a leading role.
The nervous system consists of brain, spinal cord and its nerves.
It can be divided into: central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and peripheral nervous system (cranial nerve 12 pair, spinal nerve 3 1 pair).
Neurons are the basic units of the structure and function of the nervous system, which are composed of cell bodies (metabolic centers) and processes.
Protrusions include dendrites and axons. Dendrites: short dendritic branches; Axon: long and few branches.
Function of neuron: It has the functions of receiving stimulation, generating impulse and conducting impulse.
Third, reflex is the basic way of nerve activity.
In the central nervous system, the part where the cell bodies of neurons are concentrated is called gray matter. The place where a lot of neurons protrude in bundles is called white matter.
The structure of reflex arc includes ① sensor: sensing stimulus and generating impulse ② afferent neuron: conducting impulse to nerve center ③ nerve center: receiving incoming impulse and generating new nerve impulse ④ efferent neuron: transmitting new nerve impulse from nerve center to effector ⑤ effector: receiving impulse and causing corresponding muscle and gland activities.
Direction of nerve impulse conduction on reflex arc: sensor? Afferent neurons? Nerve center? Efferent neurons? effector
Four, reflection can be divided into conditional reflection and unconditional reflection:
Comparison between unconditioned reflex and conditioned reflex;
Unconditional reflection of comparison items
The formation of reflection is innate reflection, and acquired reflection is gradually formed in life.
Brain stem and central cerebral cortex under spinal cerebral cortex participate in reflex.
The nerve connection is fixed and will not fade. It can fade temporarily. Reconstruction and reorganization
Example? Eat plums to quench your thirst, and hope plums to quench your thirst? 、? Want to quench your thirst with plum?
The cerebral cortex is the highest center of the nervous system.
1. There are many grooves and gyrus on the surface of the brain, which makes the actual surface area of the brain much larger than the smooth shape.
2. The cerebral cortex is the gray matter structure on the surface of the brain. The number of neurons is huge (the number can reach 65.438+0.4 billion).
3. The cerebral cortex is in the highest central position. Its physiological activity is called higher nervous activity, which has the centers of body feeling, body movement, language, vision and hearing.
4. The language center is unique to human beings, and the body movement and the body sensation center are opposite.
5. Conditioned reflex is a kind of nerve regulation that both humans and animals have, but it can establish conditioned reflex to the stimulation of words and languages, which is the most prominent feature of human conditioned reflex. It is also the essential feature that distinguishes people from animals.
I. Eyes and eyesight
1, the eyes are the visual organs that feel the external light.
2. The structure of the eyeball:
Eyeball: (eyeball wall, contents)
(1) Eye wall:
Adventitia: cornea? Colorless and transparent, transparent to light; Scleral? White is opaque, supportive and protective.
Media: choroid? Rich in blood vessels and melanin (darkroom prevents light from refracting in the eyeball)
Iris. Pigment, surrounded by pupils.
Ciliary body? Control the pupil's opening and narrowing; Adjust the amount of light entering the eyes. (adjust the focal length. When the eyes are far away, the ciliary muscles relax. If they look closely, the ciliary muscles contract. )
Intima: retina? (of visual cells) a photoreceptor directly connected to the optic nerve.
(2) Contents: aqueous humor: thin liquid.
Lens: elastic convex lens. (light refracted into the eyeball)
Vitreous body: a fragile transparent colloidal substance.
(3) Pupil: the passage of light.
Lens: transparent and elastic, like a lenticular lens, which can refract light.
3. Formation of vision:
Objects reflect light? Cornea? Pupils? Lens (refraction)? Retina (imaging, producing nerve impulses)? Optic nerve (conduction)? Visual center of cerebral cortex (forming vision).
4. Myopia, hyperopia and pseudomyopia.
Position correction of anterior and posterior diameter imaging of lens eyeball
Normal eyes, normal retina
Pay attention to eye hygiene before pseudomyopia with excessive curvature and normal retina.
Excessive bending of anterior concave lens in true myopia.
The elasticity of hyperopia is too small and too short, and the convex lens behind the retina is too short.
Second, ears and hearing.
1, the ear is an auditory organ, and the structure of the guard is mainly characterized by adapting to receiving sound stimuli.
2. Ear structure: (outer ear, middle ear and inner ear)
(1) external ear: auricle (collecting sound waves) and external auditory canal (transmitting sound waves)
(2) Middle ear: tympanic membrane (generating vibration), tympanic cavity and ossicles (transmitting vibration to the inner ear)
(3) Inner ear: cochlea (including auditory receptors), vestibule and semicircular canal (including receptors for head position change).
The inner ear has dual functions of hearing and feeling position change.
3, the formation of listening:
Sound waves? External auditory canal? Tympanic membrane (producing vibration)? Auditory ossicles (hammer, anvil, stirrup)? Cochlea (impulse)? Listen to the classics? Cerebral cortex (auditory pathway)? Auditory formation
4. Eustachian tube: a small tube connecting the pharynx and the eardrum.
Close at ordinary times, open when swallowing or yawning, so that air can enter the tympanic cavity from the pharynx and keep the air pressure balance on both sides of the eardrum.
Third, smell and taste.
1, olfactory receptor is located in the top wall of nasal cavity, called olfactory mucosa.
When we carefully identify the smell, we often take short and frequent inhalations.
3, when suffering from a cold, rhinitis, may cause abnormal nasal ventilation and make the sense of smell disorder.
People's sense of smell is easy to adapt.
5. Taste receptors are called taste buds, which are mainly distributed on the back of the tongue, especially between the tongue and the lateral edge.
6. Four basic tastes: sour (on both sides of the tongue), sweet (on the tip of the tongue), bitter (at the root of the tongue) and salty (before the tongue).
7. The most sensitive parts of human touch: lips, tip of tongue and tip of nose. The ventral side of a limb is more sensitive to touch than the corresponding dorsal side.
8. Cold receptors? Cold stimulus receptors. Thermoreceptor? Temperature-stimulated receptors.
Section 3 Hormone Regulation
Endocrine system (endocrine glands and exocrine glands form the endocrine system)
1. Endocrine gland: there is no catheter, and its secretions can enter the capillaries around the cells. Send it to the whole body by blood circulation. Such as pituitary gland, adrenal gland, islet and gonad.
2. Exocrine glands: Secretions of ducts and cells are discharged through ducts. Such as: salivary glands, stomach glands, intestinal glands and so on.
3. Hormone: a substance with important regulatory function secreted by endocrine glands in human body. It can regulate human metabolism, growth and reproduction.
Second, the difference between exocrine gland and endocrine gland
Examples of the whereabouts of catheter secretions in gland types
Exocrine glands have ducts that enter body cavities or secrete salivary glands, liver, intestinal glands, stomach glands, sebaceous glands and so on.
Endocrine glands enter glandular capillaries, such as pituitary gland, thyroid gland, adrenal gland, islet and gonad, without ducts.
Comparison of Three and Four Hormones
Diseases caused by deficiency (excess) of physiological functions of hormone-producing parts
Growth hormone pituitary regulates human growth and changes (height and weight). Too much infancy: gigantism.
Defect: dwarfism
Overadult stage: acromegaly
Thyroid hormone thyroid promotes growth and development, metabolism, oxidative decomposition of substances in the body and excitability of the nervous system. Too few infants: dementia (mental retardation)
Adult deficiency: goiter
Too much: hyperthyroidism
Diabetes is formed when insulin islets lower the blood sugar concentration.
Sex hormone gonads have a significant role in promoting the growth and development of the corresponding male and female reproductive organs, and can also stimulate and maintain the secondary sexual characteristics.
Fourth, related knowledge points:
1, thyroid synthesis needs iodine: if iodine is insufficient, you will suffer from thyroid hyperplasia (big neck disease)
Supplement: iodization of salt; Seaweed and other iodine-rich marine plants.
2. The pancreas includes exocrine part and endocrine part:
Exocrine part: pancreatic juice, which is input into duodenum through pancreatic duct.
Endocrinology: insulin (insulin injection can be used when the human body has too little insulin)
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