At present, biology and archaeology generally believe that human beings originated from apes. At present, there are two main theories about the early evolution of modern humans, namely, the single origin theory and the multi-origin theory. /kloc-in the 0/9th century, anthropologists in western countries held the concept of racial discrimination, and most of them agreed with the theory of multiple origins, believing that whites and other races had different origins and were fundamentally in a superior position. In the 20th century, new archaeological discoveries, the development of genetic testing technology and the progress of ideas made most scientists agree with the theory of single-point origin, but with the emergence of new archaeological discoveries, more and more scientists began to investigate the theory of multi-point origin.

The process of human evolution

65 million years ago, an asteroid with a diameter of more than 10 km crashed into Mexico's Yucatan Peak Island at a speed of tens of kilometers per second. This influence has seriously damaged the environment and climate of the earth in a short time, leading to the collapse of the global ecosystem. At that time, 80% of biological species were extinct, especially the golden age of reptiles ended. The extinction of the dominant dinosaurs on the earth provided an opportunity for the evolution and prosperity of mammals.

50 million years ago, primates evolved rapidly in a radial way, from primitive monkeys of lower primates to advanced primates. At this time, some monkeys began to evolve into apes, and primitive apes gradually separated from monkeys. At present, the earliest known ape is the primitive ape unearthed in Fayong, Egypt, which lived 35 million to 30 million years ago, followed by the ancient Egyptian ape 28 million to 26 million years ago. 23 million years ago, forest apes evolved. At present, fossils of forest apes have been found in many places in Africa and Eurasia. 10 million years ago, forest apes disappeared.

In the long process of survival, forest apes have been divided into several branches, such as giant apes, Siva apes and Rama apes. 14 million years ago, the ancient ape Rama began to appear. At present, the fossils of the ancient ape Rama have been found in Africa, Asia and Europe (also found in Lufeng, China). The same characteristics are: short snout, backward dental arch, closely arranged teeth, small canine teeth, wide and short buccal crown, and bicuspid mandibular first premolar. These points are similar to humans, but different from apes. Most scholars believe that Lamar, an ancient ape, is the common ancestor of human beings and orangutans.

12 million years ago, crustal movement began to create a north-south rift in eastern Africa, dividing Africa into two relatively independent animal and plant systems, which became the key factor for people and apes to part ways. More than 6 million years ago, North and South America were not connected. Between the Pacific Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean, ocean currents are connected. The Arctic Ocean is warmer and the salinity of seawater is higher, so it is not easy to freeze. Later, the inclination of the earth's axis changed, and the sunlight received by the earth decreased slightly; Crustal movement created the isthmus of Panama in Central America, which blocked the ocean current between the two oceans. With the increase of rainfall in the Arctic Ocean, the salinity of surface seawater decreases, making it easier to freeze. These factors combine to form a large ice sheet between the north and south poles; The ice sheets in the North and South Poles also reflected a lot of sunlight, which made the earth enter the ice age. During that ice age, the climate was cold, and a lot of water was stored on land in the form of ice and snow, and the sea level dropped by about 50 meters. Global drought and lack of rain have dried up the Mediterranean. At that time, in the west of the Great Rift Valley in Africa, because it was located near the equator, not far from the Atlantic Ocean, and the terrain was low, it was still full of rain and dense forests. The Rama ape there lived on trees, with plenty of food and a leisurely life, so it evolved slowly and gradually evolved into an orangutan. At the same time, in the eastern part of the Great Rift Valley in Africa, the crustal movement raised the terrain, blocked the water vapor from the distant Atlantic Ocean, and gradually reduced the rainfall there from west to east. The original large forest degenerated into grassland, and the Australopithecus lamarckiana had no trees to climb and could not inhabit, so he had to come to the ground, lacking food and living a hard life. In order to better adapt to the environment, get food, avoid natural enemies, and broaden their horizons, Lamanas in the Rift Valley of East Africa began to learn to walk upright. During this period, some populations with today's anthropoid ancestors became extinct because they could not adapt to the new environment. More than 5 million years ago, a large-scale advanced primate, Australopithecus Australopithecus, appeared in eastern Africa. It was almost impossible to walk on two feet and was assisted by two hands.

Australopithecus Australopithecus, named after the earliest discovery of its skeletal fossils in southern Africa, is also called the earliest human (genus), or together with its descendants bosman, homo habilis and craftsmen, it is collectively called early ape. Fossils of Australopithecus have been found in more than a dozen places, mainly in southern and eastern Africa, the most famous of which is "Lady Lucy". Ms. Lucy, unearthed in Ethiopia in 1974, lived more than 3 million years ago and died at the age of 20, with a total skeleton preservation rate of 40%. The main characteristics of Australopithecus are: the dental arch is parabolic, the canine teeth are not prominent and there is no backlash; The parietal lobe is enlarged, which may have primitive language ability and communicate with people by gestures; Thumb can be held by other four fingers, and natural tools can be used; The big toe is juxtaposed with the other four toes in front of the foot, and the sole of the foot has an arch; The foramen magnum of skull is close to the center of skull base, and the pelvis is wider than that of apes, so it can walk upright. The skull of Australopithecus is shorter than that of humans, and its brain capacity is very small, only one third of that of modern humans, but its brain structure is close to that of humans. Australopithecus can walk upright, but it is awkward and slow. Judging from the shoulder blades and arm bones, Australopithecus still maintains the climbing characteristics of its primate ancestors. Australopithecus is more like human than real human, but it is obviously different from apes. It is between the two, and it is the first transitional creature in the process from apes to humans. In a word, Australopithecus is recognized as the earliest ancestor of human beings, the origin of human beings, the earliest hominid, and its physical characteristics are close to human beings. 1.5 million years ago, Australopithecus disappeared.

The significance of walking upright is significant and far-reaching. The clumsy hands of human ancestors were finally liberated from the walking organs and engaged in other jobs, which accelerated the evolution of human beings. Since then, for the first time, there has been a great difference between humans and quadrupeds, and primitive humans have gradually separated from apes.

2.5 million years ago, in Africa, Australopithecus evolved several branches almost simultaneously: 1, Bosman. Bowie's ape-man looks like an orangutan and has a strong physique; The brain volume is more than 500 ml; The teeth are huge, the facial muscles are strong, and they are resistant to coarse food. Bowie ape-man ate plants, and had rich food and a leisurely life, but his diet was single and his adaptability was not strong. 654.38+0 million years ago, the living environment changed, and Borrelia hominid became extinct because it could not adapt. 2. Capable people. Capable people are slim and tall; The brain volume is about 700 ml; Hand bones and leg bones are similar to those of modern people. Able people have a wide range of eating habits, not only eating wild fruits, young leaves and plant tubers, but also eating meat, and the proportion of meat in food is very high. Capable people have a hard life and often have no food, but they are very adaptable. 3. Artisans. The physical characteristics and living habits of craftsmen are similar to those of homo habilis, but their adaptability seems to be stronger. It is more likely that the descendants of Homo erectus evolved from craftsmen.

Bowie apes, homo habilis and craftsmen, together with their ancestor Australopithecus, are collectively called early apes.

Capable people and craftsmen not only eat fruits and vegetables, but also pick up carrion and eggs and hunt rabbits, wild deer, wild donkeys and antelopes. Early ape-man was not only a hunter, but also a prey when hunting, and often became a delicacy for large carnivores. Capable people and craftsmen may have simple language. Judging from archaeological sites, it seems that capable people and craftsmen can build simple dwellings. More importantly, a large number of hammering stone tools, mainly chopping tools, scrapers, polygonal tools and so on, have been unearthed in the site. Based on this, we can imagine a scene where an able person and a skillful craftsman make stone tools, then slaughter animal meat with them and tap bones to absorb bone marrow. Bone marrow is more nutritious, which other animals can't enjoy.

In the process of using natural tools for a long time, human ancestors finally learned to make tools, and the manufacture of tools is a conscious activity, which is an important feature that distinguishes human beings from other animals. Since then, human society has entered the Paleolithic Age. Capable people and craftsmen make tools, which can promote the development of language; Use tools to get more and better food; Eating a lot of nutritious food can promote the evolution of the brain.

The skeleton fossils and living sites of early apes are mainly found in some parts of Africa, and there are not many existing data. From the excavation site, it was found that homo habilis or craftsmen once lived in the same place with several different species of Australopithecus, and even with their descendants Homo erectus. Because of their different living habits, there is no competition for survival between them.

Nearly 2 million years ago, in Africa, Homo erectus appeared. Homo erectus, also known as late ape-man. Later, Homo erectus went out of Africa and migrated to Eurasia, which was the first time in the history of human evolution to go out of Africa. At present, a large number of Homo erectus skeleton fossils and living sites have been found in Africa, Asia and Europe. China Yuanmou, Lantian, Beijinger, Indonesian Javanese, German Heidelberg, North Africa Mauritanian, etc. All belong to the category of Homo erectus. The brain volume of Homo erectus is about 1000 ml; The skull is thick, the brow ridge is prominent, and the skull is low and flat, which has the characteristics of apes; Legs are like people, suitable for walking upright and can run as fast as modern people. From the skull structure, it can be confirmed that Homo erectus has language ability. Homo erectus lived a life of gathering and hunting, perhaps recorded by some symbols. In the long process of human evolution, Homo erectus inherited and improved the skills of his ancestors and was able to make stone tools according to his own wishes. In the living site of Homo erectus, in addition to a large number of stone tools, a large number of traces of fire such as roasted animal bones were unearthed. It can be inferred that in the fire caused by natural factors such as thunder and lightning, Homo erectus took over the fire, preserved the fire and kept the fire.

The use of fire is significant. Homo erectus used fire not only to keep out the cold, but also to drive away wild animals and enjoy cooked food. Cooked meat and cooked fish are of great benefit to the human body, which can make the human body absorb more nutrients in the same amount of food, make the brain control the activities of limbs more effectively, and be more conducive to the evolution of the brain and the whole body. Homo erectus did not have a huge body, nor could it fly at high speed, nor did it have sharp teeth, claws and horns. However, Homo erectus finally gained an absolute advantage in the animal kingdom with its clever brain and flexible hands, and gradually entered the top of the food chain.

600,000 years ago, Homo erectus in Africa and Eurasia independently evolved into Heidelberg people. Heidelberg people are named after their skeletal fossils, and their living place was first discovered in Heidelberg, Germany. Heidelberg people actually belong to the category of Homo erectus, which is a kind of late Homo erectus. Their physical characteristics and living habits have not changed much compared with those of primitive Homo erectus. 200,000 years ago, Homo erectus (Heidelberg people) disappeared. At the same time, in Africa and Eurasia, Neanderthals evolved independently from the local Heidelberg people.

Neanderthals, named after their skeletal fossils were first discovered in the Neanderthal Valley in Germany, are also called Neanderthals for short, or they are called Neanderthals because most of them live in caves. At present, a large number of Neanderthal skeleton fossils and living sites have been found in Africa, Asia and Europe. Dali people, Maba people and Xu Jiayao people in China belong to this early Homo sapiens. The body shape of Neanderthals is very close to that of modern humans, but there are still some characteristics of apes: eyebrows and ridgelines are well developed, the forehead is low, the pillow is prominent, the nose is wide, and the jaw is prominent. Neanderthals were not tall, but strong and powerful; The brain volume is about 1300 ml, which is much larger than that of homo erectus, and the brain tissue is more complicated. In the cave where Neanderthals lived, a large number of exquisite stone products, bone needles, animal fossils and traces of fire were found. From 280,000 to 1 1 10,000 years ago, the earth experienced an ice age; More than 70,000 years ago, the earth once again ushered in the latest ice age. Neanderthals lived in two cold ice ages, of which there was only a warm interglacial period of 40 thousand years. Neanderthals wore clothes made of animal skins and made a fire to keep warm; Hunting gear, which mainly lives on hunting, looks like a javelin and consists of thin stone pieces with blades and horns and wooden sticks; When hunting, many people are often organized to ambush large prey by using favorable terrain, and the prey will be forced into favorable terrain by torches. Neanderthals had funerals; Old people will pass on their life experiences to future generations. However, Neanderthals always used inherent tools and didn't want to improve them.

200,000 years ago, in Eurasia, the shorter Heidelberg people independently evolved Neanderthals (early Homo sapiens), while in Africa, the taller Heidelberg people (Homo erectus) also evolved early Homo sapiens (Neanderthals) in Africa. Later, early African Homo sapiens went out of Africa and went to Eurasia, which was the second time in the history of human evolution.

Archaeological studies have found that early Homo sapiens, who evolved independently from the local Heidelberg (Homo erectus), lived together with early Homo sapiens who came out of Africa for the second time and even with late Homo sapiens who came out of Africa for the third time for at least 60,000 years. About 30,000 years ago, early Homo sapiens were all extinct and completely replaced by late Homo sapiens. The DNA research of contemporary molecular biology shows that Neanderthals (early Homo sapiens) are not the direct ancestors of modern people, but a branch of human evolution.

During the Ice Age nearly 200,000 years ago, although Africa was not cold, it was extremely dry and its living environment was extremely bad. After the evolution of early Homo sapiens in Africa, the original population of Heidelberg people in Africa was almost extinct. 10.5 million years ago, due to evolution, a small number of Heidelberg descendants with rich imagination and stronger adaptability in Africa finally escaped the disaster and survived. The molecular biology research on female mitochondrial DNA shows that all people in the world are descendants of nine female ancestors 6,543.8+0.5 million years ago, which shows how small the population was at that time! 1987, scientists put forward the "eve theory" on this basis, and started the search for "eve".

1.5 million years ago, the few people who survived because of their imagination were late Homo sapiens (farmers or modern people in Kroma).

1 1 ten thousand years ago, the ice age ended, the global climate became warmer, and the late Homo sapiens ushered in a good time, but it didn't last long. 75,000 years ago, the Sumatra volcano in Indonesia erupted, and a large amount of volcanic materials were thrown into the sky and spread in the stratosphere, which blocked a lot of sunlight and led to a sharp change in the global climate. After 1000, the earth entered the ice age again. At the beginning of that ice age, due to the sinister environment and difficult survival, the population size of Homo sapiens in the later period shrank rapidly, so that it was almost extinct. But by 60,000 years ago, the late Homo sapiens finally adapted to the harsh living environment, and the population size gradually expanded and recovered.

654.38 million to 50,000 years ago, late Homo sapiens walked out of Africa and gradually migrated to all continents except Antarctica. This is the third time in the history of human evolution to go out of Africa. During this period, mainly due to the cold ice age, many late Homo sapiens (Kroma farmers) who came out of Africa returned to Africa and then came out again.

Kroma farmers, named after their skeletal fossils were first discovered in agricultural caves in Kroma, France, are also called late homo sapiens or modern people. At present, there are many places in the world where there are bones and living sites of farmers in Kroma. The cavemen, Hetao people, Shuidonggou people and Ziyang people in China belong to the category of farmers in Kroma. However, compared with the late Homo sapiens in Europe, the late Homo sapiens in China were slightly different in physical form, and the equipment they made was similar to the cultural level they created, but their styles were slightly different. The physique of farmers in Kroma is basically the same as that of modern people. Its main features are: high and wide skull top, almost disappearing eyebrow ridge, atrophied mandible, obvious mandible, deep molar fossa and so on. Kroma farmers' heads are round and plump, with a brain capacity of 1400ml and complicated brain wrinkles, just like modern people. They have high intelligence and complete language skills. Farmers in Kroma are tall and thin, with developed limbs, agile and flexible movements, and extremely skilled hands. Farmers in Kroma make a living by gathering and hunting deer, sheep, wild horses, bison and even large wild animals. Farmers in Kroma know how to bury their dead relatives and use long stones and leaves to make tools. A large number of stone tools, such as pointed tools, scrapers, various stone knives, carving knives and drills, have been found in the living sites of farmers in Kroma. And bone grinding instruments such as bone awl, spear thrower, bone needle and harpoon; Various decorations; Figures and animals carved with bones and soft stones, as well as murals and rock paintings reflecting people's life, work and hunting scenes at that time.

Farmers in Kroma not only pursue material life, but also know how to pursue spiritual life. It can be inferred from a large number of unearthed decorations that farmers in Kroma have aesthetic ability and the custom of loving beauty, hoping to enjoy beauty. More importantly, it can be inferred from numerous murals and rock paintings that farmers in Kroma have rich imagination and abstract thinking ability. This ability was not possessed by all living things before, including Neanderthals (early Homo sapiens). It is this rich imagination and abstract thinking ability that makes farmers in Kroma more creative and leads farmers in Kroma into civilized society.

According to the study of mitochondrial DNA and Y chromosome DNA, it is found that all modern people have the same origin in Africa, and the main migration time and route of their ancestors are as follows: 50,000 years ago, farmers from Kroma crossed the East Coast of Africa, crossed the Red Sea, went to Central Asia via West Asia, and then crossed India to Southeast Asia. 40,000 years ago, from Southeast Asia, some people entered the south of China, crossed the Yangtze River to the north of China, and spread in East Asia. Others crossed one strait after another (in that ice age, most of those straits became continental bridges, which could be crossed on foot) and arrived in Oceania. At the same time, some Kroma farmers who left Africa continued to come to Central Asia. Some of them migrated westward to Europe, while others moved eastward to Siberia and northern China, where they merged with people from Southeast Asia. Among the modern ethnic groups in Eurasia, the Central Asian ethnic group has the highest genetic diversity and is also the oldest, especially the Uzbek ethnic group. Central Asia is the birthplace of two great migrations of Kroma farmers after they left Africa.

More than 20,000 years ago, due to the different living environment, the scattered farmers in Kroma were divided into four major races: 1, Mongolian race, also known as yellow race; 2. Caucasian race, also known as Caucasian or Europa; 3. Blacks, also known as blacks; 4. Australian race, also known as brown race. Later, under each big species, several races were differentiated.

20,000 years ago, two groups of Mongols crossed the Bering Strait and reached the American continent, becoming the ancestors of Indians.

From genetic research, we know that modern China people are not descendants of Yuanmou people, Lantian people and Beijingers, nor Dali people, Dingcun people and Xu Jiayao people, but descendants of Kroma farmers who left Africa 50,000 years ago-cavemen, Liujiang people, Hetao people and Zhiyu people. The descendants of China native Homo erectus have long been extinct. In China and even the whole East Asia, the occurrence of fossil faults in ancient human archaeology 654.38 million +4 years ago is enough to illustrate this problem.

Some scholars in China put forward a theory of multi-regional origin: nearly 2 million years ago, Homo erectus went out of Africa and went to all parts of the world, and then independently evolved into early Homo sapiens in their respective living areas, and then independently evolved into modern people, during which there was a certain degree of gene exchange between populations in various regions. At present, from the aspects of genetics and archaeological excavation, the theory of multi-regional origin lacks basis and is difficult to establish.

100 1 years ago, that is, the great flood in the Christian Bible, the last Ice Age ended, and the Paleolithic Age also ended, and human society began to enter the Neolithic Age. At this time, humans began to raise dogs and use bows and arrows (the invention of bows and arrows was earlier than this, about 20 thousand years ago). China's ancestors planted rice in the Yangtze River valley. About 65,438+0,000 years ago, the global climate experienced a brief sudden cooling process. Many animals in the middle and high latitudes fled to the warm low latitudes, and some became extinct, such as mammoths, saber-toothed tigers and short-faced bears. In this case, the ancient ancestors in the middle and high latitudes had to change their lifestyle from gathering and hunting to agriculture and animal husbandry, which promoted the emergence of agriculture and animal husbandry.

8,000 years ago, four distinctive agriculture and animal husbandry centers appeared in the world: 1 and China, which mainly cultivated pigs and chickens, millet in the Yellow River valley, rice in the Yangtze River valley and beans in both places. 2. The two river basins in West Asia mainly raise goats and sheep, and grow wheat and barley; 3. In Northeast Africa, donkeys are the main livestock, sorghum is the main crop, and African millet and African rice are also planted; 4. In Central America, camel sheep and Dutch pigs are mainly trained, and corn, potatoes and cotton are planted.

At the same time, a large number of new technologies and new things began to enter the lives of ancient ancestors: drilling wood for fire; Fishing with a net; Pottery; Houses; Hmm; Village; Brewing and sprinkling; Musical instruments, etc. In addition, textile appliances, food processing appliances and other large-scale production and living appliances also appeared at this time. This is the era when human beings began to settle down, and it is also the first era of great inventions. At this time, it is equivalent to the legendary Three Emperors era in China. Jiahu culture, Hou Li culture, Peiligang culture, Dadiwan culture, Tangjiagang culture, Hemudu culture and Yangshao culture either entered a period of prosperity or began to sprout.

Five thousand years ago, a number of far-reaching new technologies and things appeared: cities; Text; Calendar; Cars (including ox carts); Canoe; Medicine; Silk fabrics, etc. At that time, the embryonic form of China appeared in the Five Emperors' era, which was equivalent to Chengtoushan, Dawenkou, Liangzhu, Qujialing, Hongshan and Longshan. In Egypt, menes unified Egypt and established the former kingdom. Four thousand years ago, metal utensils began to appear; The ancient Egyptians built pyramids, and Chinese ancestors, ancient Indians and Sumerians successively established their own countries. —— Excerpt from Cai