I. Bacteria and fungi

7. Colony: An aggregate visible to the naked eye formed by bacteria or fungi after reproduction, called colony.

Bacterial colony characteristics: the surface is small, smooth and sticky or rough and dry, white;

Fungal colony characteristics: large, fluffy, flocculent cobweb-like, with red, green, yellow, brown, black and other colors.

8. Culture methods of bacteria and fungi: ① preparation of culture medium ② high temperature sterilization ③ inoculation ④ constant temperature culture.

9. Culture medium: organic matter containing nutrients.

10. The survival of bacteria and fungi also needs certain conditions: moisture, suitable temperature, organic matter (nutrients), certain living space, etc. In addition, some are aerobic and some are anaerobic (that is, life activities are inhibited when aerobic). Except for a few bacteria, they can't synthesize organic matter by themselves, and can only use ready-made organic matter as nutrition (i.e. heterotrophic nutrition).

1 1. Scientists have discovered archaea in extremely special environments such as deep-sea craters. The existence of archaea shows that: ① archaea has strong adaptability to the environment; ② Bacteria are widely distributed.

12. In hot summer, food is perishable, and many people get gastroenteritis. The reason is that in hot summer, the air humidity is high and the temperature is high, which is suitable for the reproduction and growth of bacteria and fungi. If the food is not preserved properly or for a long time, it will deteriorate due to the pollution of bacteria and fungi, and people will get gastroenteritis if they eat the deteriorated food.

13. Clothes washed and dried will not mildew, but dirty clothes and shoes are prone to mildew. The reason is that the washed clothes are clean and dry, lack of nutrition, and are not suitable for the propagation of fungi, so the washed clothes are not easy to grow mildew; On the contrary, dirty clothes provide a suitable growth environment for fungi, so dirty clothes are moldy.

14. When making kimchi, cover it and seal it with water. The purpose is to prevent air from entering the tank, but to maintain the anoxic environment in the tank, because lactic acid bacteria can only decompose organic matter in vegetables into lactic acid in anoxic or anaerobic environment.

15.65438+Dutch Levin in the second half of the 7th century? Hook invented the microscope and discovered bacteria; /kloc-in the 0/9th century, Pasteur, the "father of microbiology", used the gooseneck experiment to prove that bacteria are not naturally produced, but are produced by existing bacteria.

16. Bacteria are very small.10 billion bacteria are only as big as a grain of rice and a single cell. (The virus is smaller than it)

17. bacterial characteristics: tiny, rod-shaped, spherical, spiral and other forms, without forming nuclei. Most of them can only live with ready-made organic matter and belong to decomposers. Split and reproduce. Some bacteria can form a dormant body with strong resistance to adverse environment, which is called spore.

18. structural characteristics of bacteria: the basic structure includes: cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, DNA concentration area, no forming nucleus; No chloroplasts; Accessory structure: some bacteria have capsule (protective effect) outside the cell wall, and some bacteria have flagella (for swimming in water); Some bacteria form spores (light dormant bodies resistant to harsh environment) in the late stage of growth and development.

19. Master the bacterial structure diagram on 60 pages of the textbook.

20. The reproduction mode of bacteria: division and reproduction, fast, divided once in less than half an hour.

2 1. Nutritional mode of bacteria: general heterotrophy (including saprophy and parasitism), that is, there is no chloroplast, and most bacteria can only survive by using ready-made organic matter and decompose the organic matter into simple inorganic matter.

22. Bacteria are decomposers in the ecosystem.

23. What are the characteristics of bacteria related to their distribution? Bacteria are tiny and easy to be carried by various media; Split propagation, rapid propagation, large number; In the later stage of growth and development, some bacteria contract and their cell walls thicken to form spores, which have strong resistance to adverse environment; Spores are small and light, can be scattered around with the wind, and can germinate into bacteria when they fall in a suitable environment. These characteristics are beneficial to the wide distribution of bacteria.

24. Comparison of animal, plant and bacterial cells

Compare animal cells, plant cells and bacterial cells.

Cell wall ×√√

Cell membrane √√√

Cytoplasm √√√

There is a DNA concentration area in the unformed nucleus.

Chloroplast ×××××

Some pods have ××××

Flagella ×× Some have it.

25. Fungal characteristics: The thallus is composed of hyphae connected by many cells; Each cell has a cell wall, a cell membrane, a cytoplasm and a nucleus; There are also unicellular fungi, such as yeast; Without chloroplasts, they all live with ready-made organic matter, that is, heterotrophy; Reproduce offspring with spores

26. Penicillium: turquoise, with spore-bearing hyphae in a broom shape; Aspergillus: dark brown (sometimes yellow, green, etc. ), spores attached to the top of radial hyphae; Mushrooms get nutrients from decaying plants. These fungi live in places with suitable temperature, sufficient water and rich organic matter.

27. Various fungi: mushrooms, fungus, tremella, ganoderma lucidum.

28. Mushrooms are also assembled from mycelium.

Nutrition mode: heterotrophic (saprophytic)

Reproduction: Spore reproduction

Environment: dark and humid, rich in organic matter and warm.

29. Yeast (understanding)

⑴ shape: (single cell) oval, colorless.

⑵ Structure: cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, cell wall, vacuole, no chloroplast.

⑶ Nutritional mode: heterotrophic (saprophytic) aerobic: glucose-carbon dioxide+water+energy (multiple)

Anaerobic: glucose-carbon dioxide+alcohol+energy (less)

(4) Propagation mode: bud propagation, spore propagation under special circumstances.

30. Mushrooms, fungus and other edible fungi are collectively referred to as edible fungi.

3 1. The role of bacteria and fungi in nature:

① Participate in the material cycle as a decomposer. That is, the remains of animals and plants are decomposed into carbon dioxide, water and inorganic salts, which are reabsorbed by plants and made into organic matter. Therefore, it plays an important role in the circulation of carbon dioxide and other substances in nature.

② Causes diseases of animals, plants and people. These microorganisms live parasitically and absorb nutrients from living animals and plants. Such as tonsillitis caused by streptococcus, tinea caused by fungi, wheat leaf rust and so on. Note: beriberi has nothing to do with fungi (it is caused by vitamin B 1 deficiency).

(3) with animals and plants. * * * refers to the phenomenon that one creature and another live together, interdependent and inseparable, in short, mutual benefit * * *. Such as fungi and algae grow together to form lichens.

Another example is rhizobia and leguminous plants. Rhizobia transform nitrogen in the air into nitrogen-containing substances that plants can absorb, thus increasing the content of nitrogen in soil, improving soil fertility and increasing crop yield (nitrogen is a substance that plants need in large quantities).

Function: Some bacteria in rabbits, cows and sheep help to decompose vitamins.

With people: some bacteria in the human intestine can produce vitamin B 12 and vitamin K, which is beneficial to the body.

32. The utilization of bacteria and fungi by human beings is reflected in four aspects:

(1) food production. That is, the application of fermentation principle. Fermentation is a process in which organic matter is decomposed into some products by yeast or other fungi at a certain temperature.

② Food preservation.

Causes of corruption-bacteria and fungi decompose organic matter in food and grow and reproduce in it;

Preservation principle-kill bacteria and fungi or inhibit their growth and reproduction;

Common saving methods:

Pasteur disinfection method (based on the principle of high temperature sterilization)

Tank storage method (based on the principle of high temperature disinfection and prevention of contact with bacteria and fungi)

Freezing method, cold storage method (based on the principle that low temperature can inhibit bacteria)

Vacuum packaging method (based on the principle of destroying the living environment of aerobic fungi)

Sun drying and smoking, salting, dehydration and osmotic preservation (based on the principle of removing water to prevent the growth of bacteria and fungi)

Use preservatives

Use rays

③ Disease prevention and treatment. Mainly refers to antibiotic therapy (such as penicillin) and transgenic technology to produce drugs (such as insulin). Antibiotics are substances produced by fungi (and actinomycetes), which can kill some pathogenic bacteria.

④ Environmental protection. Under anaerobic conditions, some bacilli and methanogens can ferment and decompose polluting organic matter and produce methane. Under aerobic conditions, other bacteria (such as Flavobacterium) can decompose these wastes into carbon dioxide and water, thus purifying sewage.

32. When making steamed bread or bread, yeast is used. The carbon dioxide gas it produces will form many small holes in the dough, which will make steamed bread or bread swell and soften, and the alcohol contained in the dough will evaporate during steaming and baking.

33. Yeast should be used to make steamed bread, lactic acid bacteria should be used to make yogurt, acetic acid bacteria should be used to make kimchi, and distiller's yeast should be used to make wine.

Geography:

1, the geographical location and characteristics of China:

● Latitude position and advantages: China's territory spans a vast latitude from north to south, most of which are located in the mid-latitude area, belonging to the (northern temperature) zone, and a small part is in the (tropical) zone, not in the (cold zone). The huge climate difference provides favorable conditions for the development of (various agricultural economies).

● Land and sea location and advantages: (1) is located in the east of Asia and the west of the Pacific Ocean, which makes the vast area in the east of China (under the influence of humid air flow in summer monsoon, precipitation) rich and is beneficial to (agricultural) production; (2) The eastern region has both land and sea, which is conducive to friendly exchanges with overseas countries; The western region (deep into Eurasia) enables China's land transportation to communicate directly with other countries (Central Asia, West Asia and Europe), which facilitates foreign countries (exchanges and cooperation). (3) There are many excellent harbors along the coast, which are convenient for development (marine industry).

● China has a territorial area of (9.6 million) square kilometers, ranking third in the world after (Russian) and (Canadian). Lulin 14. Clockwise, they are North Korea, (Russia), (Mongolia), Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan, (India), Nepal, Bhutan, (Myanmar), (Laos) and Vietnam. The land border is more than 20,000 kilometers. There are six countries across the sea: Korea, (Japan), Philippines, (Malaysia), Brunei and (Indonesia).

2. The population of our country

● Population in 2000: (1295) billion.

● The outstanding characteristics of China's population: large population base and rapid population growth.

● Characteristics of population distribution in China: The population distribution (uneven) is bounded by Heihe River in Heilongjiang and Tengchong in Yunnan, with high population density in the (eastern) area and low population density in the (western) area. The western part of China is sparsely populated, but rich in resources. What problems should be paid attention to in the development of the western region? The western region has resource advantages, but the natural environment is relatively fragile. At present, the contradiction between man, land, water and soil is quite acute, and the development of the western region must be based on environmental protection, and it is not possible to develop first and then treat it. )

● Population policy: family planning.

● Content: Control the population and improve the quality of the population.

3. Nationalities in China

There are (56) ethnic groups in China, among which the Han nationality has the largest population and the Zhuang nationality has the largest population.

● Distribution characteristics of Han nationality: Han nationality is distributed all over the country, most concentrated in (central) and (eastern).

● Distribution characteristics of ethnic minorities: mainly concentrated in (northeast), (northwest) and (southwest). Zhuang nationality is the most populous nation. Characteristics of ethnic distribution: (large mixed residence, small settlement).

● National customs:

Nadam Congress (Mongolian)

Dai water-splashing festival, peacock dance,

Keywords Tibetan group dance, Tibetan calendar year,

The long-term encouragement of the (North Korea) nation, etc.

4. The terrain of China

● Topographic features of China: (complex and diverse topography, vast mountains)

● What problems should be paid attention to in the development and protection of mountainous areas:

(1) The mountainous area is rugged, with inconvenient (transportation) and difficult (infrastructure) construction.

(2) When developing and utilizing mountainous areas, special attention should be paid to (ecological environment construction) to prevent and avoid mountain disasters (such as collapse, landslide and debris flow).

● Topographic features of China: (The topography of China is high in the west and low in the east, with a stepped distribution).

Stairs, altitude, main terrain types and boundaries of main terrain areas

The first step, the first step, the second step, Kunlun Mountain-Qilian Mountain-Hengduan Mountain; The second and third steps are Daxinganling-Taihang Mountain-Wushan-Xuefeng Mountain. Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and Qaidam Basin over 4000m.

The second step is 1000-2000m Plateau, Inner Mongolia Plateau, Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau, Loess Plateau, Sichuan Basin, Tarim Basin and Junggar Basin.

The hills, mountains, plains and basins below the third step 500 meters are alternately distributed in the southeast hills, northeast plains, North China plains and the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River.

● The influence of the stepped distribution of China's topography on the climate, rivers and traffic in China;

(1) Impact on climate: China's topography is high in the west and low in the east, which is conducive to the humid air flow at sea to advance inland and bring abundant precipitation to vast areas of China.

(2) Impact on rivers: the topography of high in the west and low in the east will inevitably cause rivers in China to flow into the sea from west to east; When the river flows from a higher step to a lower step, the drop is large, resulting in huge water energy.

(3) Impact on traffic: The big river flowing eastward connects the traffic between the east and the west of China, which facilitates the connection between coastal areas and inland areas; The mountain range at the junction of stairs has become a huge obstacle to the east-west traffic in China.

Topographic areas on both sides of the mountain range

West side east side

① Northeast Plain of Inner Mongolia Plateau in Daxinganling

② Taihang Mountain Loess Plateau North China Plain

③ Wushan Sichuan Basin Yangtze River Plain

④ Hengduan Mountains, Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, Sichuan Basin or Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau.

Topographic areas on both sides of the mountain range

North and South

⑤ The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau in Kunlun Mountain Tarim Basin

⑥ Tarim Basin, Junggar Basin and Tianshan Mountain

● Mountains form the terrain skeleton.

● Four stationary periods

(Qinghai-Tibet Plateau) The plateau with the highest altitude and the largest area in China.

(Inner Mongolia Plateau) The ground is open and endless.

Loess is widely distributed, and there are thousands of valleys on the surface.

The surface of Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau is rugged and the karst landform is remarkable.

● Four great basin

The largest basin is Tarim basin.

The basin with the highest altitude is (Qaidam) basin.

The basin with the highest latitude is Junggar basin.

The basin with the best conditions for developing agricultural production is the (Sichuan) basin.

● Main mountain range trend: east-west trend: Tianshan-Yinshan.

Kunlun Mountain-Qinling Mountains

Nanling mountains

Northeast-southwest trend: Daxinganling-Taihang Mountain-Wushan-Xuefeng Mountain

Changbai Mountain Range-Wuyishan Mountain Range

Mountainous areas of Taiwan Province Province.

North-South trend: Hengduan Mountains.

Northwest-Southeast Strike: Qilian Mountain Range

Arc mountain range: Himalayas

5. Climate in China

According to the active accumulated temperature, China can be divided into five temperature zones from north to south.

Cold temperate zone, middle temperate zone, warm temperate zone, subtropical zone and tropical zone; In addition, there is a plateau climate zone with higher terrain.

(1) tropical, subtropical, warm temperate, middle temperate and cold temperate plateau climate zones

(2)0

(3) Warm temperate zone

(4) Qiongtai, Guangdong, Guiyun or Yunnan

(5) 13

(6)② Subtropical ③ Warm temperate zone

According to the relationship between precipitation and evaporation, China can be divided into

It is divided into four areas: dry and wet (wet), (semi-wet), (semi-arid) and (arid).

Dry and wet areas, humid areas, semi-humid areas, semi-arid areas and arid areas.

Vegetation forest grassland and desert.

Agricultural type planting (paddy field agriculture) planting (dry land agriculture) animal husbandry

● The dividing line between monsoon area and non-monsoon area: (Daxinganling), (Yinshan), (Helan), (Bayankala) and (Gangdise).

Name the reasons for the differences in the following geographical phenomena:

The special landscape of "Land of Fish and Rice" in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River in China benefits from the climate.

The middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River and the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau are roughly at the same latitude, but the reason for the huge climate difference is the terrain (the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is at a high altitude).

The middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River are at the same latitude as the Arabian Peninsula, and the reason for the great climate difference is the influence of (land and sea location) and (summer monsoon). The latitudes of Beijing and Urumqi are roughly the same, but the precipitation is quite different. (Land and sea location, summer monsoon)

Planting different fruit trees in different temperature areas; Different temperature zones have different internal cooking systems; The architectural structure of traditional folk houses in north and south is also different. The reason is (latitude factor)

The vegetation in the east and west is different; The types of agriculture in the east and west are different, with farming in the east and animal husbandry in the west; The roof structure of east and west houses is different, with many pheasant roofs in the southeast and many flat roofs in the northwest. (Different precipitation)

China is extremely rich in crops and various animal and plant resources. (The climate is complex and diverse)

② Different natural resources and tourism resources (with complex and diverse climate) are formed.

People's eating habits are also different, such as: Sichuan, Hunan and other places are cold and humid in winter, and they like to eat Chili; Southerners love rice, while northerners love pasta. (The climate is complex and diverse)

People's clothes are also colorful because they have adapted to the climate (the climate is complex and diverse)

For example, Tibetan robes in Tibet are designed to adapt to the climatic characteristics of Tibet with large daily difference (topography); ⑤ Architectural features vary from place to place. The slope of the roof in the north is small, the wall is thick, and the slope of the roof in the south is large (temperature and precipitation); 6. That's right. ……

( 1)①7; ②7、8; ③4、5、6、7、8; ④4、5、6、7、8、9

(2) More in summer and autumn, less in winter and spring

(3) Guangzhou and Harbin; The rain belt in China is advancing from south to north.

(4) Because the rainy season in southern China starts early and ends late, the rainy season is long; The rainy season in northern China started late, ended early and lasted for a short time.

● Disastrous weather (cold wave), (typhoon) and (flood and drought disaster) caused by monsoon climate.

● Main features of climate in China.

(1) Read the climate characteristics of our country from the picture: the climate characteristics (complex and diverse climate) and (monsoon) climate are remarkable.

(2) Sanming has a subtropical monsoon climate.

List and compare the Yangtze River and the Yellow River.

Yangtze river and yellow river project

Mount Tanggula, the birthplace of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, and Bayankala, the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau.

Source Tuotuo River Yuegu Zonglie Canal

It flows through Qinghai, Sichuan, Tibet, Yunnan, Chongqing, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangxi, Anhui, Jiangsu, Shanghai, Qinghai, Sichuan, Gansu, Ningxia, Inner Mongolia, Shanxi, Henan, Shandong and other provinces.

It flows through the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau, Sichuan Basin, Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, Loess Plateau and North China Plain in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River.

The main tributaries are Jialing River, Hanjiang River, Ganjiang River, Taohe River, Huangshui River and Weihe River.

The basin is located between Qinling and Nanling, and between Yinshan and Qinling.

Develop hydropower (upstream) and shipping hydropower (upstream)

Harnessing and building shelter forests in the middle and upper reaches (omitted, see the table below)

● Causes of disasters in various sections of the Yellow River and basic control schemes.

The upper, middle and lower reaches of the river.

The main disasters are grassland degradation, desertification and serious soil erosion.

The cause of the disaster is that the climate tends to be dry. The middle reaches of the Yellow River flow through the Loess Plateau with many tributaries. The loess plateau has loose soil layer and serious vegetation destruction. In heavy rain, a lot of sediment flows into the Yellow River with the rain. When the Yellow River enters the lower reaches of the plain, the channel widens and the slope slows down. The river's velocity slows down, and the sediment it carries is deposited, which makes the river bed gradually rise.

Managing planting trees and grass to carry out comprehensive management of soil and water conservation. Reinforce the Yellow River levee

8. Characteristics of China's natural resources: (rich in total resources), (but insufficient per capita). )

Types of land resources Main topographic types in dry and wet areas in monsoon or non-monsoon areas

Farmland monsoon region in humid and semi-humid areas of plains, low mountains and hills and eastern basin

Mountain area in humid forest area

Semi-arid plateau in grassland non-monsoon area

Basins and plateaus with unused land in semi-arid areas of western China.

● The basic national policy of land in China is to "cherish and rationally use every inch of land and effectively protect cultivated land."

Temporal and spatial distribution characteristics of water resources in China and its influence on social and economic development

At present, the freshwater resources used by human beings are mainly rivers, lakes and shallow groundwater.

● Temporal and spatial distribution characteristics of water resources in China: time: more in summer and autumn, less in winter and spring; Space: There is no southerly wind in the north.

● Solve the problem of uneven distribution of water resources in time and space: The construction of reservoirs can effectively control the seasonal variation of runoff and water quantity. For example, the Three Gorges and Xiaolangdi water control projects.

● One of the effective ways to solve the uneven distribution of water resources in different regions: inter-basin water transfer. For example, the South-to-North Water Diversion Project, the Luanhe River Diversion Project and the Yellow River Diversion Project.

● One of the main ways to solve the water shortage problem in China is to save water and protect water resources.

9. Traffic in China

● The overall distribution pattern of China's traffic network: dense in the east and sparse in the west.

● Main railway lines in China.

① Lanxin Line ② Qinghai-Tibet Line (unfinished) ③ Baolan Line ④ Beijing-Kowloon Line.

⑤ Baocheng Line ⑤ Chengkun Line

East-west direction: Beijing-Baotou-Baolan line (Baotou-Lanzhou);

Longhai (Lianyungang-Lanzhou)-Lanxin Line (Lanzhou-Urumqi);

Shanghai-Hangzhou-Zhejiang-Jiangxi (Hangzhou-Zhuzhou)-Xiang Qian (Zhuzhou-Guiyang)-Guikun (Guiyang-Kunming) Line

North-South direction: Jingha Line (Beijing-Harbin); Beijing-Shanghai line (Beijing-Shanghai);

Beijing-Guangzhou line (Beijing-Guangzhou); Beijing-Kowloon Line (Beijing-Kowloon)

Liujiao Line (Jiaozuo-Liuzhou);

Baocheng Line (Baoji-Chengdu)-Chengkun Line (Chengdu-Kunming)

Major transportation hubs and railway trunk lines in China;

Beijing: (Jingha Line), (Beijing-Baotou Line), (Beijing-Guangzhou Line), (Beijing-Shanghai Line) and (Beijing-Kowloon Line).

Xuzhou: (Longhai Line), (Beijing-Shanghai Line).

Zhengzhou: (Longhai Line), (Beijing-Guangzhou Line).

Lanzhou: (Longhai Line), (Beijing-Baotou Line) (Baolan Line).

● Reasonable choice of transportation mode according to needs (omitted)

9. Agriculture in China

● Regional distribution of agriculture:

Differences between East and West:

400 mm isohyet in the west and east.

Planting, animal husbandry, forestry and fishery

Plains, valleys and oases with irrigation water sources; Differences in planting between north and south in semi-humid and humid plains of Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang, Qinghai and eastern Tibet; Natural forest areas in the northeast and southwest; Artificial forest areas in the southeast; As well as the eastern coastal areas and the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River;

Crops of cultivated land types in this area are ripe (several times a year), and the main crops are ripe.

Grain crops, oil crops, sugar crops

Wheat, peanut and beet are harvested once a year, thrice a year and twice a year in the dryland north of Qinling-Huaihe River.

In the south of Huaihe River in Qinling Mountains, rice, rape and sugarcane are harvested twice a year and three times a year in paddy fields.

● Three major cotton areas:

● Illustrate the necessity of developing agriculture according to local conditions with examples: (P 102 Figure 4. 16 Fill in the Atlas P32 V)

Making use of local (natural) advantages to arrange agricultural production departments or crops to be developed in areas that are most conducive to their own development and growth is one of the important contents of "adapting to local conditions".

Agricultural production is also restricted by local (socio-economic conditions), which is also a factor that needs to be fully considered in developing agriculture.

10, China industry

● Industrial distribution characteristics: (coastal), (along the river) and (along the traffic)

● Spatial distribution of industry:

(1) Industrial bases along national railways such as Beijing-Guangzhou, Beijing-Harbin and Beijing-Shanghai.

(2) Industrial belt in the Yellow River Basin.

(3) The economically developed areas along the Yangtze River centered on (Shanghai), (Nanjing), (Wuhan) and (Chongqing).

(4) Coastal areas (Yangtze River Delta), (south-central Liaoning), (Beijing-Tianjin-Tangshan) and (Pearl River Delta) are the most developed economic core areas.