265,438+0 century is the era of innovative economy. The development cycle of new technologies, inventions and their industrialization has been greatly shortened, and the promotion of scientific and technological progress to economic growth has been greatly enhanced. The integration and wide application of computer, communication and storage information technology have effectively changed the technical foundation of human society and accelerated the process of global integration. These technologies not only provide new wealth forms and development impetus for the society, but also break through the traditional mode of relying on scarce natural resources and geographical conditions to achieve economic growth, and put forward higher requirements for the development of science and technology and the construction of national innovation system. For the first time in human history, knowledge resources have become the core of wealth creation. Therefore, if any country wants to win the initiative in the increasingly fierce competition of comprehensive national strength, it must strengthen the development of science and technology, actively build a national innovation system, and seize the commanding heights of high-tech industrialization development. In this regard, the practices and experiences of the United States have important reference significance for China, and deserve serious study.

I. American science and technology policy and system

America is the most technologically advanced country in the world today, with the largest team of scientists and engineers in the world. In the 1990s, 35 scientists in the United States won the Nobel Prize in Natural Science, accounting for 6 1% of the total. Among the four scientific and technological literature retrieval systems recognized in the world, the number of papers published in the United States accounts for nearly 40% of the total. The United States also has the most patents in the world. In addition, the United States also leads the world in scientific research equipment and means, scientific research level and potential, and the development of high-tech industries.

1. American science and technology policy

America is a market economy country. Before the 1940s, the government seldom intervened in scientific research, but mainly left this work to the market to adjust. After the outbreak of World War II, out of the need of the war, the American government began to extensively intervene in scientific research and technological development. 1940, President Roosevelt approved the establishment of the National Defense Research Council. A year later, it was changed to the scientific research and development bureau, with scientist v. bush as the director. The report Science: Endless Frontier published by V. Bush in 1945 has become a classic of American national science and technology policy. In this report, V. Bush analyzed the revolutionary significance of the development of science and technology and its important role in national security, and pointed out that "the government should shoulder the new responsibility of promoting the dissemination of new scientific knowledge and cultivating talents from young people". One of the important achievements of the Scientific Research and Development Bureau he presided over was the organization and implementation of the Manhattan Project to build an atomic bomb, and through the implementation of this plan, a number of important research institutions were created, and an American mechanism was established in which the government assigned research work to the private sector, and the national science and technology plan was implemented through the interaction among the government, enterprises and private research departments.

During the Cold War, the U.S. government further strengthened the development of national science and technology, focusing on national defense, atomic energy, aerospace and other fields. In the 1990s, in the face of the increasingly fierce competition in the world economy after the end of the Cold War, the Clinton administration emphasized the shift of the focus of national security, and the future national security will depend on the overall strength of economy and science and technology. To maintain the hegemonic position of the United States, we must give priority to maintaining the scientific research and educational advantages of the United States. In Science and National Interests, co-authored by President Clinton and Vice President Gore, technological progress is more vividly compared to the engine of economic growth, while scientific research is the inexhaustible fuel of the engine, and it is clearly stated that "keep a leading position in the forefront of all scientific knowledge; Strengthen the link between basic research and national goals; Encourage cooperation among the government, industrial departments and universities, promote investment in basic science and engineering, and make effective use of material resources, human resources and financial resources; Training the best scientists and engineers in 2 1 century; Improve the scientific and technological literacy of all Americans. " Around the above goals, the Clinton administration further increased the investment in science and technology in the United States and formulated the R&; D (research and development) funds will reach about 3% of GDP, and industry, academia and various social forces will be encouraged to participate in scientific and technological development. While giving overall guidance and coordination, the government, on the one hand, vigorously promotes the "advanced technology plan" to encourage the commercialization and industrialization of basic research results, on the other hand, pays attention to the development of scientific and technological projects that are crucial to basic research and market mechanism adjustment, thus enhancing the scientific research potential of the United States, further strengthening the role of science and technology as an economic engine and promoting the economic growth of the United States.

2. American science and technology system

According to the principle of separation of powers, science and technology in the United States are regulated by the Constitution and regulations. The Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation and the House Committee on Science, Space and Technology play an important role in formulating national science and technology policies. The United States government has no special scientific management department. The President coordinates the national science and technology work through the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy and the President's Science and Technology Adviser. 1993, in order to strengthen the leadership function of the government, the federal government established the National Science and Technology Committee, which is chaired by the President and composed of leaders of major government departments. At the same time, the President's Advisory Council on Science and Technology was established to attract people from academia and industry to participate in scientific and technological decision-making. All government ministries and commissions have departments in charge of science and technology affairs, and a deputy minister-level leader is responsible for the division of labor. The government has also set up some independent departments to manage scientific and technological work, such as the Environmental Protection Agency and the National Science Foundation. In addition, semi-official and unofficial institutions such as the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, the Institute of Medicine and the Smithsonian Institution also have great influence on the research, popularization and development of science and technology.

In terms of scientific and technological innovation, the National Institute of Standards and Technology established in accordance with the Trade and Competition Law of 1988 plays an important role. By establishing a regional manufacturing technology transfer center, the institute organizes research institutions and enterprises to implement advanced technologies and promote cooperation between the government and enterprises. At present, all states in the United States have such centers.

In terms of operating mechanism, the government's science and technology plan and budget must be submitted to the two houses of Congress for deliberation and approval, and can only take effect after being signed by the President. According to the law, the government organizes and leads national scientific and technological activities through scientific and technological planning, budgeting, signing contracts and organizing evaluations. The most important legislation directly related to scientific and technological activities is the National Science and Technology Policy, Organization and Priority Law adopted by the National Assembly in 1976. So far, this basic law on science and technology has been revised many times.

The United States legally divides all institutions into three categories: government agencies, non-profit organizations and profit-making organizations. The provisions of federal and state laws on these three types of institutions, such as the Law on Government Agencies and Employees and the Law on Model Non-profit Organizations, are effective for the science and technology sector. In addition, the science and technology-related parts of the tax law and special law are also applicable to the science and technology sector. It is worth pointing out that the American patent system and intellectual property laws and regulations have played an important role in encouraging inventors to develop and utilize their patents.

American scientific and technological institutions can be divided into four systems: federal government system, enterprise system, institution of higher learning system and other non-profit systems. In the federal government system of the United States, the national laboratory is the main pillar of science and technology. Among them, the famous ones are Los Alamos National Laboratory in New Mexico, Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee and Kennedy Space Center in Florida. At present, there are about 800 national laboratories in the United States, accounting for about 1/3 of the total government R&: D 65438+ funds. The American government attaches great importance to the transformation of scientific and technological achievements in federal laboratories and encourages the transfer of scientific and technological achievements to industry through various bills.

The scientific and technological work of enterprises occupies an important position in the United States. About 3/4 of R&; D work is completed by enterprise departments, 3/4 researchers are distributed in enterprise scientific research units, and more than 60% of R&D in China has been absorbed; D total funds. In the research and development of enterprises, large enterprises play an important role, among which Bell Laboratories enjoys a high reputation. Since the 1970s, the role of small and medium-sized enterprises in the development of science and technology has also been significantly enhanced, especially in the development of science and technology industrial parks, small and medium-sized enterprises and their technological innovation activities have played a decisive role.

Universities are the main bases for basic research in the United States. Among the more than 3,000 institutions of higher learning in the United States, there are more than 300 comprehensive universities with graduate schools, among which research universities such as Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Stanford University, Harvard University, Princeton University, Cornell University, University of California at Berkeley and California Institute of Technology have made outstanding achievements in scientific research. Due to the scattered sources of funds for higher education and research in the United States, universities are full of competition for teachers, students and research funds, and at the same time, they have formed a tradition of close contact between universities and industry.

Second, the epitome of American science and technology innovation system-Silicon Valley

Since 1950s, with the rise and development of information and communication technology, biotechnology, new materials, new energy, aerospace, marine technology and other high technologies, American industrial enterprises, universities and government departments began to set up laboratories engaged in high-tech R&D around universities in order to make more convenient use of the research power of universities, and then derived entrepreneurial companies, formed high-tech industrial clusters and became high-tech industrial parks. Among them, the famous "Stanford Research Park", which is based on Stanford University in the west, was later called Silicon Valley, and the Boston suburb of Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the east, 128 expressway area. This trend is still in the ascendant. However, due to various reasons, many parks died halfway or never recovered. Only Silicon Valley has been leading the development trend of high-tech industries in the world.

Silicon Valley is located in northern California, starting from san mateo County in the north and reaching Santa Clara County in the west. It is a strip of 65,438+0,500 square miles, with the center in Parateau and a population of 2.5 million. After 40 years of development, Silicon Valley has become an important gathering place of information technology industry and biotechnology industry in the United States. By the 1990s, R&D personnel in Silicon Valley had accounted for 1 1% of the total labor force, which was 2.5 times of the national average. 1999, the per capita value created by employees in Silicon Valley was 1 15000 US dollars, while the average figure in the United States in the same year was 78000 US dollars. 1999, 72 companies in silicon valley went public for the first time, and 1300 million dollars of venture capital poured into this region, accounting for13 of the total venture capital in the United States. In addition, Silicon Valley has continuously set a world record for the speed of wealth gathering, which has reached a market value of 654.38 billion US dollars compared with the long-term painstaking operation of traditional enterprises. Yahoo only took two years, while Netzero only took nine months. Through these rapidly appreciating enterprises, Silicon Valley has trained a large number of knowledge-based billionaires.

Continuous innovation is the biggest secret of Silicon Valley's success. The organic combination of technological innovation, entrepreneurial entrepreneurs, entrepreneurial spirit and entrepreneurial enterprises, institutional environment and supporting systems has enabled Silicon Valley to maintain its vigorous vitality and lead the development of high-tech industries in the world.

1. Technological innovation

Silicon Valley has successfully seized the opportunity of four technological waves in the world information industry since 1950s, and firmly stood at the forefront of IT industry. The first time was in the 1950s. Hewlett-Packard and other companies have taken advantage of the huge demand for electronic products in the US defense industry, promoted the rapid expansion of enterprises, and established technical infrastructure and supporting industries in Silicon Valley. The second time was the invention of 1959 integrated circuit, which led to the rapid growth of semiconductor industry in 1960s and 1970s. At this stage, well-known enterprises such as Express, Intel, AMD and National Semiconductor Company appeared. The third time was from the mid-1970s, when the industrialization of personal computers developed, and Silicon Valley took the lead in rising. There were 20 computer companies such as Apple Computer and more complex workstation industries led by companies such as Sun Microsystems. The fourth time is the Internet. The commercial development of the Internet and the establishment of 1993 World Wide Web have opened up new development prospects for Silicon Valley, and Netscape, Cisco and 3com have become the leaders of the Internet revolution. At the same time, since 1990s, with the breakthrough of biotechnology, biotechnology industry has become a new high-tech industry hotspot, and Silicon Valley attracts biotechnology enterprises to settle here with its unique sensitivity and advantages. By 1998, the total capital of the biotechnology market in Silicon Valley has ranked first in the United States.

2. Entrepreneurs, entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial enterprises

The strength of Silicon Valley is based on high technology, but not all high-tech achievements are included here. Even the Internet technology in IT industry is the first breakthrough in other regions. Therefore, the uniqueness of Silicon Valley lies not only in high technology. Entrepreneurial entrepreneurs, entrepreneurial spirit and entrepreneurial enterprises gathered here also play a vital role. In addition to their talents and abilities, successful entrepreneurs in Silicon Valley have a common feature, that is, they have a high degree of entrepreneurial spirit and dare to introduce new products, new processes and new methods into industrial production and markets at the first time. It is no coincidence that companies such as Hewlett-Packard, Apple and Yahoo were founded by two self-made young people. Entrepreneurial entrepreneurs not only have a high-tech background, but also have a strong desire to spread new technologies to the whole world by starting enterprises. For them, the process of starting a business and the prospect of sharing new technological achievements with the world are the real entrepreneurial ideals. In addition, the characteristics of entrepreneurial enterprises, such as flexible structure, broad prospects, high rate of return and strong subjective consciousness, have further stimulated entrepreneurs' eclectic innovation consciousness. The organic combination of entrepreneurial entrepreneurs' intelligence and entrepreneurial spirit is the decisive factor to create the glory of Silicon Valley.

3. Institutional environment to encourage innovation

The United States has a set of national laws and regulations on securities, taxation, accounting, corporate governance, bankruptcy, immigration and research and development. They are decentralized and decentralized, but they are closely related and highly complementary. This system is market-oriented and encourages competition, especially innovative enterprises. For example, the average time to set up a company in Europe is 12 times that of the United States, and the cost is three times higher. At the same time, contrary to most countries, the United States has been binding large companies in the market according to the Anti-Monopoly Law, such as IBM and Microsoft in the computer industry. In addition, the government has also promoted the development of the computer industry represented by Silicon Valley by formulating company operating rules, purchasing company products and subsidizing R&D funds. Finally, it should be pointed out that although the United States has always advertised freedom of trade, it still kept its share of American semiconductors in the Japanese market by putting pressure on Japan in the mid-1980s.

4. Specialized innovation support system

In Silicon Valley, various support services are provided for new high-tech enterprises, including venture capitalists, bankers, lawyers, headhunting companies, accountants, consultants and a large number of other professionals. Among them, venture capital industry plays an important role. High-tech enterprises are different from traditional enterprises and have many physical assets. Their main assets are creativity, human resources, technology and market knowledge, and the risks are even greater. At the same time, due to the rapid development of high technology, time is particularly important for start-ups to seize the commanding heights of the industry. An important condition for the success of Silicon Valley is to have a technology-savvy venture capital industry, know how to conduct structured transactions and portfolios, and provide quick financing for start-ups. Successful companies such as Cisco, Genentech, Intel, Sun Microsystems and Yahoo all grew up rapidly with the support of venture capital. Venture capital has also gained huge returns from successful high-tech enterprises. 1998, 1824 enterprises in the two major industries of information technology and life sciences in Silicon Valley absorbed 125 billion dollars of venture capital.

In addition, the free-flowing high-quality labor force, the social atmosphere of encouraging adventure and tolerating failure, the open business environment and the interaction of production, learning and research have also played an important role in promoting the development of Silicon Valley.