In the eyes of modern people, "walking without riding" is a way of fitness and leisure, but for the ancients, it can only be self-comfort in the long journey. /kloc-From the end of 0/9 to the beginning of the 20th century, the concept of public transport was still little known in Beijing, and the ancient means of transport pulled by human and animal forces dominated urban life for a long time.
The rulers of the Qing dynasty were all people who immediately won the world by riding and shooting, and they regarded riding and shooting as the true colors of Manchu. According to the regulations of the Qing dynasty, it is forbidden to set up sedan chairs in the inner city where Manchu people live, and it is forbidden for Manchu people to sit in sedan chairs. The difference of sedan chairs also reflects the difference between dignitaries and ordinary people everywhere. The sedan chair in which the emperor rides has a yellow cover and yellow curtains. Before going out, the emperor should "pave the road with loess and splash clear water on the street", greet the guests with courtesy, ring gongs to clear the way, and merchants along the way stop business and avoid it. Even the roadside and alley mouth should be covered with blue cloth screens, and people are forbidden to watch. No matter how rich people are, they can only take ordinary sedan chairs carried by four or two people. Only the newlyweds in the wedding or the dead in the funeral can moderately raise the grade specification.
Mule car
The "sedan chair" pulled by mules is a traffic weapon in old Beijing. Although it is not as ostentation and extravagance as a human sedan chair, it is much faster. During the Gengzi War, Empress Dowager Cixi left Beijing by mule train and stumbled all the way to xi 'an. In Beijing, a small number of cars are "passenger cars" used for public transportation, while the rich and powerful people are popular to bring their own sedan chairs, similar to private cars now. Rich people spend a lot of energy and money on cars, mules and drivers' equipment.
In the transportation of goods, unicycle, platoon and mule are used for short-distance transportation. In order to adapt to the wear and tear in long-distance travel, the outer edge of the wooden wheel of the carriage should be covered with a layer of iron tiles. Camels are heavy-loaded, durable and docile, and are used by Beijingers for long-distance transportation or riding. Since the Yuan Dynasty, camel teams have been in an endless stream, transporting black coal and white lime from Xishan mining area to the city. By the early 1950s, camel bells had been with Beijing for hundreds of years.
In the imperial city of that year, only a few main roads were official roads paved with stone slabs, and the most decent one was the imperial road for emperors to travel. Other roads are unpaved dirt roads. "Rainy days are like ink cartridges, sunny days are like incense burners", "There is no wind and three feet of soil, and the streets are full of rain and mud" has become a strange landscape of the Imperial Capital. The road distribution is also different from today. Pedestrians and manned vehicles take the stone road in the middle, and heavy trucks carrying goods take the dirt roads on both sides. After a long time, both sides of the road rolled out of the deep driveway. 1900, the Qing Dynasty implemented the New Deal, established the "Industrial Inspection Bureau" and began to rebuild the road in Beijing. At that time, a poem "Zhuzhici" recorded: "When the street is crowded, the middle is high and the sides are low. The road is rebuilt, and the way of the king is flat. "
railway
The industrialization of any country is guided by the ideological emancipation movement. The tragedy of the Westernization Movement is that the feudal traditional thoughts of the people who led the movement remain the same.
The failure of the Opium War didn't make China people realize the corruption of the feudal system, but only made some people of insight admit the foreigners' "building a strong ship and gaining profits". Therefore, these people of insight are looking for Qiang Bing, a powerful country. China's modern industrialization began with the modernization of weapons.
Ten years after the signing of the Beijing Treaty, Zeng Guofan, Li Hongzhang and others began to introduce foreign arms production technology. 1855, Zeng Guofan set up a small arsenal in Jiangxi, 186 1 year, and set up an arsenal and dock in Anqing, Anhui. 1865, Zeng Guofan and Li Hongzhang established Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau in Shanghai. This factory produces some small armored speedboats, rifles, artillery, bullets and so on. Although these early factories played a very limited role in enhancing national strength, they were the beginning of Westernization Movement and modern industrialization in China.
The westernization movement began in the Meiji Restoration era of Japan's drastic changes. In other words, China's modern industry started no later than Japanese. But why is the result of Westernization Movement completely different from that of Meiji Restoration? By the beginning of the 20th century, Japan, a "small country", had become an industrial and military power, while the Chinese Empire, which is famous for its vast territory and rich resources, was still poor and weak, only beaten and invaded. The difference between the two is of course institutional. Meiji Restoration was a peaceful bourgeois revolution, the essence of constitutional monarchy was bourgeois democracy, and the Westernization Movement was only an economic revitalization under the feudal system. If the political system remains unchanged, there will be no economic take-off.
Institutions are created by people and can also be changed by people. It is thought that determines people's behavior. Therefore, the economic difference between China and Japan lies in the system, and the difference in the system lies in the ideology. Before the Meiji Restoration, there were also some ideological emancipation movements in Japan. Although the idea of "leaving Asia and entering Europe" is completely westernized, some people still think it is "excessive" today. But there is no ideological "overcorrection", which is not enough to change a nation's deep-rooted traditional thinking. China did not have such a thorough ideological emancipation movement at that time.
Although there are many excellent things in China traditional culture, as the mainstream ideology of feudal system, its essence is conservative and closed. This tradition of thousands of years has penetrated into everyone's blood in China and has become the most powerful obstacle to China's modernization. Lenin said that tradition is a terrible force. In China, this tradition is terrible enough to stop all historical progress, even the tiny economic progress that doesn't touch the political system at all. It is this powerful and terrible tradition that the Westernization Movement encountered.
A conservative people will resist almost all new things different from tradition. The experience of China Railway illustrates this point. As early as the first year of Tongzhi, 27 British and American foreign firms, such as Jardine Matheson and Qicheng, suggested to Li Hongzhang to build a railway from Suzhou to Shanghai, which was rejected. The following year, another British engineer, Stevenson, suggested to the Qing government to build six railway trunk lines, namely, Hankou to Shanghai, Hankou to Guangdong, Hankou to Sichuan, Shanghai to Fuzhou, Zhenjiang to Beijing and Guangdong to Yunnan, which were also rejected. In the fourth year of Tongzhi, American businessmen built a railway more than a mile long outside Xuanwu Gate in Beijing, which attracted the attention of Chinese people as a sample, but it was demolished by the Bujun and Yamen in a few days. In the sixth year of Guangxu, Jardine Matheson built a railway from Shanghai to Wusong, which aroused unanimous official opposition. Finally, under the pretext of crushing a soldier, Jardine bought it for 282,000 silver, demolished it and threw it into the sea. In the seventh year of Guangxu, a 22-mile railway from Tangshan to Xugezhuang was built to pick up coal, but locomotives were not allowed, and donkeys and horses were used to tow carriages on the railway. This is a unique and unprecedented absurd move in the world railway history.
Railway is the product of modern industry and the premise of industrialization. Vogel, a Nobel Prize winner and American economist, proved the important role of railways in industrialization. While Chinese people are still boycotting railways, railways have run rampant in Europe and America. In the sixth year of Guangxu, Liu Mingchuan, a former governor of Taiwan Province Province, wrote a letter entitled "Building Railways for Self-improvement", but it was resolutely opposed by conservatives such as Zhang Jiaxiang, a bachelor of cabinet, and Liu Xihong, a member of the General Political Department (who was also the deputy ambassador to Britain Guo Songtao). The reason is nothing more than that feng shui and dragon veins will be destroyed and foreigners will covet them. The real reason for the opposition is the fear of destroying China's inherent traditions. The anti-new attitude of traditional thought has become the biggest obstacle to China's industrialization. Those who advocate the construction of railways do not criticize conservatives from the ideological roots, but look for supporters in power groups. Li Hongzhang's support for railway construction depends on the support of Prince Chun, the minister in charge of the naval yamen. Although the railway was built later, the conservative thought was not touched. Because of this, every small progress in early industrialization was achieved through political struggle.
The founders of Westernization Movement didn't and didn't want to touch traditional ideas. In fact, not only did they have no contact with feudal ideas, but even they themselves were followers of traditional ideas. At that time, the differences between the conservatives and the Westernization School were not in the fundamental ideological understanding, but in the views and practices on specific issues. For example, different attitudes towards railways. Of course, compared with conservatives, the Westernization School is still progressive. After all, they turn a blind eye and advocate "learning from foreigners." Although this "long" is completely technical. However, the Westernization School did not fundamentally get rid of the feudal traditional culture. This is the fundamental reason why the Westernization Movement failed and the early modernization process in China was extremely slow.
The ideological characteristics of the Westernization School are embodied in Zhang Zhidong's famous theory of "Chinese style and western use". "Taking middle school as the body and western learning as the application" means realizing "learning from foreigners" on the premise of maintaining feudal autocracy and traditional ideas. Some scholars think that this kind of thought is a technique of Zhang Zhidong, aiming at learning from the West, but if it is said publicly, it will be opposed and can only be realized in a roundabout way. However, I don't think so. Deeply influenced by traditional culture, Zhang Zhidong was a government official and an important official in the Qing Dynasty. His thoughts and positions determined his attitude towards the Qing Dynasty and feudal traditions. The difference between him and the conservatives is not whether to maintain the feudal system, but how to maintain it. Conservatives believe that the exclusion of feudal system is the best guarantee, and westernization school knows that it is necessary to seek institutional stability through technological changes. "Western learning" is used for "Chinese style"
The "style" and "use" of western learning, that is, system and technology, are completely unified. The successful experience of Meiji Restoration in Japan changed both "style" and "use". The failure of Westernization Movement lies in wanting to "use" instead of changing "style". It took a lot of money to promote industrialization with the feudal system, and some industries were established, but until the demise of the Qing Dynasty, China's industrialization still did not take substantial steps.
The industrialization of any country is guided by the ideological emancipation movement. Ideological emancipation is a complete denial of the feudal mainstream consciousness. We can't want national liberation, and we can't stop stubborn conservatives from meeting God with granite heads. But leaders who promote industrialization must emancipate their minds. The tragedy of the Westernization Movement is that the feudal traditional thoughts of the people who led the movement remain the same.
Around the Opium War, information and knowledge about railways began to be introduced into China.
People of insight in China located the first railway in Tangshan, which is very close to Tianjin.
At that time, Tianjin's modern industry developed rapidly in the steam engine era and needed a lot of high-quality coal as fuel. Tangshan is rich in coal reserves, but Tianjin has to import coal from Japan by sea because it cannot solve the transportation problem.
In order to make Tianjin get high-quality and cheap coal, Kaiping Mining Bureau began to build the railway from Kaiping Coal Mine to Xugezhuang in the sixth year of Guangxu in Qing Dynasty, that is, 1880.
188 1 year, Tang Xu railway, the earliest freight railway in China, was built. The railway adopts the gauge 1.435mm, and the rail is per meter 15kg. Although the total length is only 9.7 kilometers, it is the first railway operated in China and the first standard gauge railway in China.
Through the Tang-Xu Railway, Kaiping's high-quality coal was transported to Xugezhuang, Feng Run County, and then to Tianjin through the canal from Xugezhuang to Lutai, Tianjin. Tianjin has 9.7 kilometers of railways and 30 kilometers of waterways, which has initially solved the problem of land and water transport of coal.
After the Sino-French War, the Qing government began to realize the importance of railways to national defense, so in the fourteenth year of Guangxu, that is, 1888, it decided to extend the Tang-Xu Railway to Tianjin.
1888, Zhan Tianyou, the founder of China Railway, returned from studying in the United States. He works as an engineer in Tianjin Railway Company, specializing in the construction of Tangshan-Tianjin railway. Zhan Tianyou moved from Tianjin to live on the construction site, sharing weal and woe with the workers. Jintang Railway was completed and opened to traffic in only 80 days.
Jintang Railway is the first self-operated railway in China, and Tianjin has become the first big city in China to use the international standard gauge railway.
Following the opening of Jintang Railway, the Tianjin-Chongqing Railway from Tianjin to Shanhaiguan was also completed and opened to traffic in the 21st year of Guangxu, namely 1895.
Two years later, the Jin-Lu Railway from Tianjin to Beijing Lugou Bridge was completed and opened to traffic, which was the earliest double-track railway from Tianjin in China.
/kloc-for more than 0/00 years, this railway has maintained the two major cities of Beijing and Tianjin and linked the two major railway trunk lines of Jingshan and Jinpu, becoming a veritable railway artery.
19 10, the construction of Tianjin-Pukou section of Jin-Pu Railway started.
19 1 1 year, and the title of the Qing Dynasty was changed from Guangxu to Xuan Tong. In the third year, Jinpu Road and Jingfeng Road from Beijing to Shenyang were connected in Tianjin.
From the 1980s of 19, railways representing advanced productive forces began to connect Beijing with other cities in China. The station is located in Majiapu, south of the outer city. 1900 During the Gengzi War, Eight-Nation Alliance broke through the ancient city wall and built a station under Zhengyangmen, which represents Doumen. In the early years of the Republic of China, Zhengyangmen East and West Railway Stations became the terminal stations of Beijing-Fengfeng Railway and Beijing-Hanzhou Railway.
Bicycle; Bicycle exercise
Bicycles have been invented for more than 200 years. Nowadays, as a means of transportation, exercise, cross-country travel, sports competitions and a small amount of goods transportation, bicycles have spread to every corner of the world. So, do we know the history of bicycle development?
Express delivery-the earliest bicycle
179 1 One day in summer, many men and women gathered on the lawn of Louis XVI Palace. Suddenly, there was a bang, accompanied by a loud bang. In an instant, people saw a man named Kong Di de Chirac rushing through the middle of the croquet field. But Chirac did not run like ordinary people, but sat on a strange "wooden horse" with wheels, pedaling on both feet and doing running movements. When Chirac reached the end of the lawn, he turned the Trojan horse and ran back. People were shocked and attracted by Chirac's "wooden horse", which was called "running fast", and the real bicycle history really began from now on.
Pedal-the foot begins to leave the ground.
/kloc-one day in 0/863, a Frenchman, Pierre Michel, rode out of his house on an early two-wheeled bicycle, and all the people in the street of Saint Martin in Paris stared at him. Why? It turns out that Michio's feet have never touched the ground! Michio was the first person to ride a bicycle without stepping on two pedals. At this time, many models of bicycles weighed 100 pounds.
Rubber-free tires-400 cars sold a year
1865, Michelle's carriage shop sold 400 improved rubber pedal bicycles a year. But at this time, the bicycle is still called the "broken bone car", and its shock absorption function is much worse.
Large and small wheels-finally reduced the weight.
During the period of 1869, bicycles with large front wheels and small rear wheels appeared at the first bicycle show held in France. 187 1 year, James Starey of Coventry, England made the first bicycle and named it "Ariel". This kind of car is very light, and Starey is also called "the father of bicycle industry". Bicycles with large and small wheels are the first kind of bicycles popular in major industrial countries in the world.
Safe-popular with women
From 65438 to 0879, British H.J. Lawson developed a 30-pound two-wheeled chain-driven bicycle. The wheels are small and light, so cyclists won't roll over even if they brake suddenly. This kind of bicycle is welcomed by women, and any bicycle made according to this design idea is called "safe bicycle".
Tricycle.-for safety.
The two rear wheels are large, and the chain drives the rear wheels, which has a good balance effect and is conducive to pushing the whole vehicle forward. The tricycle manufactured by Peugeot in France in 1890 can carry 1 10 pounds of goods, which makes it have special commercial value.
Pneumatic Tire —— The First Major Improvement of Safety Bicycle
1885, john boyd Deng Lupu, a scot, successfully developed a bicycle with pneumatic tires.
Transmission device-the key to the development of light racing car
The "Deux Vicesses" bicycle produced by 1888 is one of the early two-speed bicycles. At present, from the initial two-speed to 18-speed transmission.
With the popularity of light rickshaws, in a few years, fashionable contemporary racing cars may be regarded as as old-fashioned as safety bicycles and as grotesque as early bicycles.
There are many stories about the invention of bicycles.
China was the first country in the world to invent bicycles. The ancestor of bicycle was a unicycle in China in more than 500 BC. During the Kangxi period of Qing Dynasty (1662 ~ 1722), Huang Lvzhuang once invented bicycles. "Grand View of unofficial history in Qing Dynasty" has been published for eleven years: "Huang Lvzhuang built a two-wheeled vehicle, which is more than three feet long and can sit for one person without pushing or pulling. When walking, turn your arm around the axis, then walk as before, and walk 80 miles around the sun with your arm. " This is the earliest bicycle in the world.
Bicycles were invented by western Europeans. In A.D. 1790, the Frenchman Sifrak developed a wooden bicycle without handlebars, pedals and chains. The car is shaped like a wooden horse, with two wheels nailed to its feet and fixed on a line. Because this bicycle has no driving device and steering device, and the seat cushion is low, Sifrak rides on the bicycle by himself, with his feet on the ground and pushing back hard to make the bicycle move straight forward. 18 17, the German baron von delaisse invented a handlebar that can move freely, making his bicycle easier to replace. Delaisse applied for a patent in Britain. 1839, K. Macmillan, a British worker, pioneered a pedal bicycle with a crankshaft mechanism to drive the rear wheels, so that people can leave their feet off the ground when riding a bicycle. 186 1 year, one day, Michelson, a Parisian carriage and stroller manufacturer, repaired delaisse's bicycle. After the repair, they found it difficult to put their feet on the ramp, so they improved it, and installed a pedal crankshaft on the front wheel of the car, thus inventing Michelle's bicycle, which soon began mass production. In about 1870, Ma Zhi, a Frenchman, made a bicycle with a big front driving wheel and a small rear driven wheel, and the effect was very good. 1890, Humber Company of England produced a chain-driven bicycle, diamond bicycle, which has been in use ever since.
Bicycles were invented by Russians. 180 1 One day in September, Artamonov, a Russian serf, traveled 2,500 kilometers to Moscow to present a gift to Tsar Alexander I. The bicycle made by Artamonov was similar to that made by Sifrak in France. When Alexander I saw the bicycle made by Artamonov, he immediately ordered the abolition of his slave status.
Ah, people and machines are really outstanding! A senior Turkish official praised Stevens as an "ordinary man" when he saw him get off his bike. Humans have used wheels (single wheel, two wheels, three wheels or four wheels) for about five thousand years, but before 1690, no one connected two wheels to ride. A Frenchman named De West Flach straddled a two-wheeled vehicle he called "Celeriffler" with his feet apart, put one leg aside and let it roll forward. The rolling of the wheel is limited, because he hasn't created a way to drive the machine. The drivable Dreyfus car was successfully developed by Karl von Dreyfus in 18 17. It is a mechanical bicycle, which was invented by Macmillan in 1839. The rear wheel is driven by a crank connected to the pedal. With bicycles, human beings can travel by themselves, and it is much faster than walking. However, not many people are interested in this idea. 186 1 year, a French hatter named brunell took his Dreyfus to the carriage manufacturer Misaud for repair. Mishaw's son Ernest probably didn't know Macmillan's invention at all, so he suggested that if a crank was installed on the front wheel-just like the handle of a mill-and it could be turned step by step, the machine would certainly be improved. In this way, he unexpectedly started the bicycle industry. In some bicycles called "Velocipide" in the early days, the pedal rotates once and the wheels rotate once. Before the bicycle named "Penny Fassen" was invented, the front wheel became bigger and bigger. People properly call this kind of car "high bike". It runs fast, but it is not stable: if you want to brake, especially when going downhill, the cyclist may be thrown in front of the handlebar and fall several times a day. However, people are not afraid. The sports club was established. 1884, the brave Thomas Stevens rode, pushed and sometimes even carried a tall bicycle named "Ordinary Man" across the United States. Intermittently, attempts were made to make the front wheel smaller to make the bicycle safer. However, due to the limitation of the technical level at that time, these attempts failed. Reliable bicycle chain is an important invention, without which it is impossible. 1885, stahly invented a chain-driven bicycle, which was named "Safe Roaming Vehicle", thus ending the era of high bicycles. Bicycles quickly adopted chain drive, but did not adopt his structural design. People have tried various methods to connect two wheels, trying to combine rigidity, controllability, mechanical efficiency and comfort. Driving soon became quite reliable and efficient. Deng Lupu reinvented pneumatic tires in 1888, and further developed bicycles. There seems to be no fundamental change in bicycles at present. In recent years, many people want to develop a better bicycle, but their efforts are in vain.
Nowadays, bicycles spread all over the world like a flood, entering thousands of households. But few people know that bicycles were invented by a German ranger named delaisse (1785- 185 1).
Delaisse used to be a forest ranger. He had to walk from one forest to another every day. Years of hard work on foot aroused his desire to invent a means of transportation. He thought: If people can sit on wheels, they will walk faster! In this way, delaisse began to design and manufacture bicycles. He made a unicycle with two wooden wheels, a saddle and a handlebar, which is connected to the front wheel for control. People sit in cars and drive wooden wheels with their feet. In this way, the world's first bicycle came out.
18 17, delaisse rode his bike for the first time and was ridiculed all the way ... He was determined to answer this ridicule with facts. In a race, he rode for 4 hours, but the horse-drawn car took 15 hours. However, no manufacturer is willing to produce and sell this kind of bicycle.
1839, Macmillan, a native of Scotland, invented the pedal and put it on the front wheel of the bicycle, which greatly improved the bicycle technology. In the following decades, various bicycles emerged, such as windsurfing bicycles, water treadmills, ice bicycles and five-wheeled bicycles, and bicycles gradually became popular means of transportation. With the emergence of pneumatic tires and chains, the structure of bicycles is becoming more and more perfect.
Delaisse also invented the meat grinder and typewriter, which can reduce the labor intensity. At present, the trams that railway workers push by manpower on the tracks are also invented by delaisse, so they are called "delaisse".
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