The name of sinology began in the late Qing Dynasty. At that time, European and American academics entered China in the name of "anthropology" or "western learning". In contrast, people call China's inherent knowledge "old learning" or "national studies".
Chinese studies in a broad sense refers to the culture and scholarship of ancient China, including the history, philosophy, geography, politics, economy, calligraphy and painting, music, Yi ology, martial arts, medicine, astrology, architecture and so on in ancient China. In a narrow sense, sinology refers to China's ancient theory, represented by the thoughts and theories of pre-Qin philosophers, including Confucianism, Taoism, military strategists, legalists and Mohists.
Sinology, based on pre-Qin classics and a hundred schools of thought, covers a whole set of cultural and academic systems, such as Confucian classics in Han Dynasty, metaphysics in Wei and Jin Dynasties, Taoism in Sui and Tang Dynasties, Neo-Confucianism in Song and Ming Dynasties, practical learning in Ming and Qing Dynasties, poems in Han Dynasty, parallel prose in Six Dynasties, poems in Tang and Song Dynasties, Yuan Qu and novels in Ming and Qing Dynasties, and historiography of past dynasties. In the history of China, "Sinology" refers to the official school headed by "imperial academy". Since "Western learning spread to the east" generally refers to "China's traditional ideological and cultural scholarship".
basic concept
With regard to the definition of Chinese studies, apart from the basic definition, there is no unified and clear definition in the academic circles.
Generally speaking, Sinology, also known as Sinology or China Studies, refers to the traditional culture and scholarship of China. Ancient Chinese studies in China include classics, history, books and collections. The concept of "Chinese studies" came into being in19th century. At that time, the improvement trend of "western learning spreading to the east" was in full swing. In order to oppose western learning, Zhang Zhidong and Wei Yuan put forward the concept of "middle school" (Chinese studies), and advocated that "middle school should be the body and western learning should be used" in order to learn western civilization and restore Confucian classics in Han Dynasty.
Sinology is based on the pre-Qin classics and a hundred schools of thought contend, covering a set of unique and complete cultural and academic systems, such as Confucian Classics in Han Dynasty, Metaphysics in Wei and Jin Dynasties, Taoism in Sui and Tang Dynasties, Neo-Confucianism in Song and Ming Dynasties, practical learning in Ming and Qing Dynasties, poems in the pre-Qin Dynasty, parallel prose in Six Dynasties, poems in Tang and Song Dynasties, Yuanqu and novels in Ming and Qing Dynasties. Hundred schools of thought's theory in pre-Qin Dynasty was * * * *, and there was no master-slave relationship. According to the role played in different periods, each theory played an explicit or implicit role in each period, only in different fields; Various theories also play an important role in different fields, such as Taoists and Legalists in the political field, Taoists and military strategists in the military field, Taoists and physicians in the medical field, and various schools in other fields (famous artists, Mohists, farmers, etc.). ), etc. Does not mean that a certain field plays a mainstream role. Therefore, there is no division between the schools of Chinese studies, and no school is the main body.
Origin and evolution
The concept of "Sinology" has always existed in the history of China, including places like Shanghai, Guangzhou, Guangzhou and so on. There was one in the Tang Dynasty. It can be seen that there is a Bailudong Academy under Lushan Mountain, which was built by Zhu Shoujian in the Southern Song Dynasty and became one of the "four major academies" at that time. But before Zhu, this place was not called Bailudong Academy, but called "Bailudong Chinese Studies". What does Bailudong Chinese Studies mean? This is a school. It can be seen that in the history of China, the concept of "Sinology" exists, and the word "Sinology" also exists, but the so-called "Sinology" always refers to the meaning of "Sinology". At the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, Zhongdu Guo Zi School was established, and later changed to imperial academy, which was in charge of the order of Chinese students. Imperial academy has etiquette, music, law, archery, imperial examination, calligraphy, mathematics and other teaching subjects.
In modern times, the so-called "Sinology" was considered by some scholars to have originated in Japan. In the middle of the Edo period, some people in the Japanese ideological circle, such as Tian Chunren of the Netherlands, advocated studying Japanese ancient books to understand the local culture, so they were called "Sinology". During the May 4th Movement, Chen Duxiu and others launched the New Culture Movement, blaming China's backwardness and beatings on the feudal system for two thousand years, and blaming Confucius and the Four Books and Five Classics for putting forward radical slogans such as "Down with Kongjiadian". However, in the later stage of the movement, Hu Shi and others put forward the slogan of "sorting out the national heritage" and advocated the slogan of "studying problems, introducing theories, sorting out the national heritage and recreating civilization", trying to find an organic combination of Chinese and Western civilizations from China traditional culture and find a way out for China's new life. 1934, Zhang founded the Zhang Guoxue Research Society in Suzhou, and gave a summary explanation of Chinese studies. Zhang's remarks were recorded and sorted out, and books such as On the Balance of National Heritage, An Introduction to Chinese Studies and Zhang Taiyan's Lectures on Chinese Studies were published, which had a great influence in the 1920s and 1930s. Zhang divided the so-called Chinese studies into five parts: primary school, Confucian classics, history, philosophers and literature, from which we can see his definition of the scope of Chinese studies. In addition, Hu Shi, Gu Jiegang, Qian Mu and others also have various expositions on "national studies", "national quintessence" and "national quintessence". Since the spread of western learning to the east, in order to distinguish western learning from middle school, the concept of "China's traditional ideological and cultural studies" has appeared. 1949 after the founding of new China, with the criticism of Hu Shi's comprador philosophy and bourgeois idealism, as well as previous literary criticism movements, "Sinology" as a slogan or noun has basically disappeared. It was only after 1980s that sinology became more and more popular at home and abroad, with the rising trend of thought of "Love my China" and the slogan of "The Rise of China", especially the spread of Confucius Institutes overseas and the constant performance of memorial ceremonies for Confucius in China.
Interpretation of meaning
What is Chinese studies? There are different interpretations of the meaning of this word, and there is no unified understanding in society. Some scholars believe that Chinese studies, whether ancient or modern, all cultural studies in China belong to Chinese studies; Some scholars also believe that Chinese studies are specially designed for governing the country and politics, and Chinese studies specifically refer to the study of "governing the country and politics". But in any case, two things are certain:
1. What is the basic definition of Chinese studies? The present significance of Sinology is relative to that of Western Learning after the introduction of Western Learning to the East, so Sinology is indisputably "China's inherent cultural knowledge".
2. The scope of Chinese studies is broad and complex, and is it not subject to the master? Sinology is based on hundred schools of thought in the pre-Qin period. In the pre-Qin period, a hundred schools of thought contended and a hundred flowers blossomed. For example, judging from the role played by each period, the Hundred Schools of Thought played an important role in all corresponding fields in each period, so the Hundred Schools of Thought did not split into two.
Nowadays, Sinology refers to all kinds of cultural studies based on pre-Qin classics and hundred schools of thought, covering later generations. Therefore, in a broad sense, China's ancient and modern culture and scholarship include China's ancient history, thought, philosophy, geography, politics, economy, painting and calligraphy, music, Yi-ology, martial arts, medicine, astrology, architecture and so on. They are all involved in Chinese studies. The name of "Sinology" began in the late Qing Dynasty. At that time, European and American academics entered China under the names of "New Learning" and "Western Learning". In contrast, people call China's inherent knowledge "old learning", "middle school" or "national studies". Sinology can also refer to China's ancient theory. Among them, the pre-Qin philosophers are the representatives, and their thoughts and theories have far-reaching influence on the traditional culture of China. They formed the thoughts of military strategists, legalists, Mohists, Confucianists and Taoists. These thoughts discuss how to govern the country from different aspects. It had a far-reaching influence on the rulers of past dynasties, and gradually formed China's traditional cultural concept.
Attribute of Chinese studies
Chinese Studies, Confucian Classics and Confucianism
In recent years, more and more people talk about Chinese studies. It seems that if you don't speak Chinese studies, you can't be called China people. But in recent years, people who talk about Chinese studies talk about Confucianism, thinking that there is no Chinese studies except Confucianism; Or only Confucianism is the real Chinese studies.
Shuo Wen Jie Zi: "Confucianism, softness, also known as warlock. From people, you need sound. " Xu Hao pointed out: "Soft people are called Confucianism because they consider themselves scholars." Confucianism "is a common name. Confucian appellation is not Confucius' own appellation, but the name of Confucius' mohists. "Therefore, in ancient times," Confucians "were usually called scholars, such as Dictionary of the World:" Confucians were called scholars. "Calling Confucianism" Confucianism "is just an ancient usage, such as" History of Han, Art and Literature ":"Confucianism is out of the official position of Stuart, helping people to be enlightened by Yin and Yang. Wandering among the Six Classics and paying attention to benevolence and righteousness, the ancestors described Yao and Shun, charted Wu Wen, and the master Zhong Ni emphasized his words. "
In other words, Confucianism is an ancient enlightenment theory that serves the imperial rule, not a theory that serves the people from the standpoint of the people. Therefore, if Confucianism is used to represent China's traditional culture, in fact, China's traditional culture is completely synonymous with ancient absolutism or the thought of serving ancient absolutism. Of course, it is not a total denial of Confucian culture, but that if China's traditional culture is regarded as Confucian culture in whole or mainly, it is not only a total denial of the fine tradition of China's traditional culture, but also a denial of the positive factors in Confucian culture. This is obviously not in line with the true colors of China's traditional culture, nor is it the main purpose of promoting China's traditional culture at present.
Sinology, as its name implies, is to study the country and the people of China. The concept of state in ancient China is constantly changing, but no matter how it changes, it can be called China or Huaxia. In other words, Sinology should be the general name of academic culture in China or China. Historically, sinology cannot be confined to the study of Confucianism. In the pre-Qin period, a hundred schools of thought contended, and Confucianism was just one of the doctrines juxtaposed with Taoism, Mohism and Legalism.
Hundreds of schools coexist.
Theoretically, the meaning of Chinese studies can be discussed. This will undoubtedly help us to increase our consciousness in the education of Chinese studies and let us have a deeper understanding of Chinese studies, instead of naively thinking that shopping in robes and jackets is talking about Chinese studies. Mr. Cao Juren pointed out that it would be "very dangerous" if he "doesn't understand what Chinese studies are at all and doesn't expect to study the truth of Chinese studies, but just blindly follows the trend, advocates some Chinese studies at random and acts as a false saint". The predecessors, such as Zhang Taiyan, are called the last generation of China's classical masterpieces, which undoubtedly has rich reference significance for Chinese studies.
Judging from the development of Zhang Taiyan's own thoughts, taking "Chinese studies" as the content is of course the ideological theme throughout his life. From the moment he entered the Qiao Jing Club in Yu Yue as a student to the moment he died, he insisted on "no need to eat or study". However, as a concept, "Sinology" does not always gain legitimacy in his discourse system. Earlier, Zhang Taiyan, as the leader of the quintessence school, used "quintessence" to refer to the content represented by later "Chinese studies". But he soon changed the concept to "national heritage" and wrote "On the Balance of National Heritage". In the third stage, the concept of "Chinese studies" was put forward. In his later years, Zhang Taiyan will also use "national character" to refer to Chinese studies. Obviously, as far as the use of these four concepts is concerned, Zhang Taiyan's view of "Chinese studies" can be reflected to some extent: "quintessence of Chinese culture" undoubtedly shows a high respect for traditional culture. However, it is difficult to answer "Is everything in history necessarily good?" Such a question. However, the "quintessence of Chinese culture" seems to go to the opposite side slightly, thinking that traditional culture has become a historical relic, which seems to give people a feeling of dust and servants, and is not as antique as the "quintessence of Chinese culture". Of course, "national character" refers to historical and traditional culture. Zhang Taiyan believes that China was persecuted by a strong enemy at that time. Even if it dies, as long as its nationality exists, there will still be a day of revival. Obviously, the meaning of nation is abstract and difficult to grasp. Comparatively speaking, the formulation of "Chinese studies" is not only neutral, but also concrete. In this context, it seems that we can also experience the positive attitude of the country from the practice of "national studies" rather than "national quintessence".
So, what is the main content of Chinese studies? In Zhang Taiyan's words, what are the "schools of Chinese studies"? He mainly discusses it from three angles: Confucian classics, philosophy and literature, which is by no means covered by Confucianism.
Zhang Taiyan pointed out that the study of Confucian classics includes two schools, namely, the study of ancient classics in China and the study of modern classics in China, and each school has its own branch. He himself is a scholar of China's classical works, and he thinks that although the Confucian classics in modern literature are not entirely about religion, they tend to be religious in general. He is somewhat dissatisfied with this. He believes that there is "no history" in terms of the original meaning of the Six Classics. Shangshu and Chunqiu are both ancient books that can be recorded, and they are unquestionable history. Most of The Book of Songs is about state affairs, with only a few ballads, so it is also history. The Book of Rites records the ancient laws and regulations and is a part of history. Chunqiu lists the facts, which contains the meaning of praise and criticism, and is an obvious history. I ching contains the essence of history; Jing Yue has been lost, but Zhang Taiyan speculates that it belongs to music score and system, so it also contains historical features. It can be seen that Zhang Taiyan insisted on the theory that "the six classics are all history", so as Mr. Tang Zhijun pointed out, Zhang Taiyan did not specialize in history among the schools of Chinese studies. Because "the Six Classics are all history", Zhang opposes "over-praising the Six Classics". This attitude is of course closely related to his position on the study of China's ancient classics. However, today, let's look at the "classics" again. Whether it is an unchangeable "common way" or a text that needs to keep pace with the times needs careful consideration. Otherwise, if we are not careful, we may flatter some senior leaders, and we will only obey them.
As for philosophy, Zhang Taiyan thinks that there are four main ancient philosophies in China: Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism and Mohism. He thinks that the Analects of Confucius is half about ethics and half about philosophy. In Confucianism, Mencius and Xunzi also talked about philosophy; Laozi and Zhuangzi's thoughts are closely related to philosophy; Celebrities involve a lot of "logic", that is, logic; Mozi's Shang Jing and Xia Jing are excellent famous studies. Among the legalists, Han Fei's two books, Jie Lao and Yu Lao, linked him with philosophy. Of course, this is Zhang's description of pre-Qin philosophy. In fact, his exposition of the history of China's ancient philosophy is concise and to the point, which reveals the rich contents of China's research philosophy.
Classification method
Divided by four banks
One of the classification methods of Chinese studies is the classification method of Sikuquanshu, which divides Chinese studies into four categories: classics, history, sub-studies and collections.
"Jing" refers to ancient classics, such as the Book of Changes, the Book of Songs, the Book of Filial Piety, The Analects of Confucius and Mencius. Later, some works on language exegetics were added, such as Er Ya.
"History" refers to some historical works, including general history, such as Historical Records by Sima Qian, General Records of Zheng Qiao, and dynastic history, such as Han Shu by Ban Gu, History of the Three Kingdoms by Chen Shou, and History of the New Five Dynasties by Ouyang Xiu. Political history, such as Sima Guang's Zi Tong Zhi Jian, and Li Dao's novel Xu Zi Tong Zhi Jian, etc. Specializing in the history of cultural relics system, such as Du You's General Code and Ma Duanlin's General Examination of Literature; Local chronicles with the region as the recording center, etc.
"Zi" refers to the collection of figures who founded a theory or school in the history of China. For example, Xunzi of Confucianism, Han Feizi and Shu of Legalism, grandson of military strategist, Laozi and Zhuangzi of Taoism, as well as Buddhism, farmhouse music, doctors, astronomical algorithms, art, music notes, miscellaneous notes, classics and novelists are all included in the subdivision.
Collection is the collective collection and personal collection of scholars in history. Personal collections are called "other collections", such as collections, collections, and collections of kings. Selected Works of Zhaoming, Wenyuan Huaying, Yutai Xinyong, etc. Ancient opera works not included in Four, such as The Palace of Eternal Life, The West Chamber, Peony Pavilion, etc., also belong to this episode.
Divide by attributes
The other is classified according to the content attribute, which is divided into three categories at first: the study of meaning, the study of textual research and the study of ci.
The theory of righteousness clarifies the truth of things, which is philosophy; Textual research, engaged in historical research, that is, historiography; Social sciences such as literature, literature, history and philosophy are engaged in the creation of practical styles such as poetry, chapter playing and storytelling. Later, on this basis, someone added two more courses to make up for its shortcomings: one is the study of the world, that is, the political, economic, legal and other social science knowledge of governing the country and the people; The second is science and technology, that is, natural science knowledge such as acousto-optic electrification.
Classical Chinese Literature
Classical category
Classics are divided into Yi, Shu, Poetry, Rite, Spring and Autumn, Filial Piety, Confucian Classics, Four Books, Music, Primary School, Stone Classics and Compilation, mainly Confucian Classics and Confucian Classics Hermeneutics.
Important bibliography of the Ministry of Economic Affairs
(More than that)
Zhouyi
minister
Zhou Li Ji
The Book of Rites
Jing Yue
filial piety/mourning
The Spring and Autumn Annals
The Book of Songs
elegant
The Analects of Confucius
History, as the second of the four books in China ancient library.
The history department is divided into official history, chronology, chronicle, other history, miscellaneous history, imperial edict, biography, historical records, chronicle, season, geography, official position and so on.
Important bibliography of history department
(More than that)
history
the Book of the Han Dynasty
book of later han
History of Three Kingdoms
Zuo Zhuan in the Spring and Autumn Period
Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Government
A Mirror of Sustainable Capital Management
Yuejueshu
Wu yue chun Qiu
Jin Shu
Clearing bank notes
The Classic of Mountains and Seas
Notes on Water Classics
Six Classics of Tang Dynasty
Tongdian
(Czech) Stalne; Stalne (Sweden); (British) Si Tong
General meaning of literature and history
Conspiracy in the warring States period
Yongle
philosophical work
It is subdivided into Taoism, Confucianism, military strategists, legalists, farmers, doctors, astronomical algorithms, tricks, art, music records, miscellaneous books and series books. .
Important bibliography of the Ministry
(More than that)
Laozi
Mozi
Liezi
Zhuangzi.
grandchild
xunzi
Everything is wrong.
pipe/tube
Yin wenzi
Shenzi
Huainanzi
Baopuzi
Mencius
Gongsun zilong
Art and literature gathering
Literary works
The anthology is divided into Chu Ci, Bie Ji, Zong Ji, Ci Qu and Boudoir.
Important bibliography of collection department
(More than that)
The Songs of Chu
Quan Tang Shi
Song ci
Yuefu poems
selected works
Li Taibai's collection
Du Gongbu Collection
Han Changli's works
Liu Hedong Ji
Bai Xiangshan Ji