The improvement of reading level does not depend on a single effort, especially classical Chinese reading. The most effective way is to rely on the usual temporary accumulation and be good at using it skillfully in reading.
Many people learn classical Chinese just to clear the obstacles in writing, thinking that if the teacher makes it clear, they will understand, which is enough. Teachers speak one by one and students learn one by one. A year and a half have passed, and I don't remember any of them. This learning method is extremely undesirable. Therefore, learning classical Chinese is first of all accumulation.
Accumulation is inseparable from recitation. By memorizing several important chapters of classical Chinese, the meaning of content words, the use of function words and the changes of various sentence patterns in classical Chinese have been included. More importantly, by reciting, we can learn the essence of the conception, layout and rhetoric of ancient famous articles and improve our cultural accomplishment. So, how many chapters do you need to recite? The newly revised middle school Chinese syllabus has clearly stipulated that "read classical poems and simple classical Chinese, understand the meaning of words and the ideological content of works, and recite a certain number of famous articles." This "certain amount" is defined in the syllabus as 50 poems such as Difficult Road to Shu, Slow Voice and Farewell to Changting, and 20 ancient poems (paragraphs) of China such as Encouraging Learning, Preface to Lanting Collection and Red Cliff Fu. These are the minimum requirements for every high school student. With the increase of reading articles, your language perception of classical Chinese will become stronger and stronger, and your reading level of classical Chinese will become higher and higher. Recitation is the basis of learning classical Chinese and the fundamental way to improve the reading level of classical Chinese. Besides, there is no better way.
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2. How should teachers teach classical Chinese? Classical Chinese teaching is both simple and not simple.
Simple is "every word is carried out, every sentence is clear", which doesn't seem to require too many tricks, but this kind of classroom learning can easily fall into the realm of "teaching" and "learning" without enthusiasm, interaction between teachers and students and boring teaching process. This kind of teaching is not conducive to the improvement of students' Chinese level and the cultivation of aesthetic taste.
Let me talk about some seemingly simple, but actually not simple classical Chinese teaching methods for your reference only. First, with a purpose? According to the spirit of the syllabus, our classical Chinese teaching should start with teaching students the basic methods of learning classical Chinese, cultivate students' ability to "correctly understand" and read "simple classical Chinese", and pay attention to cultivating students' ability to find, explore and solve problems.
Second, set two goals: 1. Accumulate common real words and function words in classical Chinese, help students lay a good foundation and gradually read simple and easy-to-learn classical Chinese independently. 2. Cultivate students' ability to read and understand classical Chinese, stimulate students' interest in learning classical Chinese, and gradually appreciate classical literature independently.
Third, adhere to the three practices? 1. Play. Now, middle school students receive more information and accumulate more ideas and knowledge.
Believe in students' comprehension ability, and don't underestimate students' comprehensive ability at will. We should boldly let go and let students read the article first with the help of textbook notes, ancient Chinese dictionaries and the Internet.
"Let students learn and explore actively in the teaching process" and cultivate students' ability to "discover, explore and solve problems". It also allows students to experience the joy of success and the fun of learning.
How to let go in teaching? My methods are: copying, reading and translating, and asking questions. The first is "plagiarism"
"Copying" requires students to copy the text in a special exercise book before class. The second is "reading and translating".
Read the text and its notes correctly, and explain the article with the help of notes. Students are fully capable of doing this.
The third is "questioning". Where students have doubts, what students can't solve through discussion is the focus of the teacher's teaching.
Chernyshevski said: "Only what people do voluntarily can be done well." Indeed, our Chinese teachers should boldly let go and stimulate students' desire for knowledge, so that students can learn independently.
? 2. point. In other words, teachers are directly involved in students' learning.
As a tutor, guide his study in time. There are three main types of nudge: nudge for understanding words (1).
For teaching, teachers don't need to explain every word and sentence of the original text in detail, but should focus on the key words and difficulties in the text. Make the students' vague places clear.
Make students suddenly enlightened. Also urge the children to take notes and write them down in a notebook.
Repeatedly taste and remember difficult and important words. (2) the inspiration of "reading aloud".
On the basis of understanding, guide students to read the article well, that is, let students read the sentences clearly, read the tone and intonation accurately, and accurately convey the author's thoughts and feelings. (3) Understanding the ideological connotation of the article, and summarizing the structure and language features of the article.
When students study classical Chinese, their understanding of words is the basis and the focus. The understanding of ideological connotation and the induction of full-text structure and language characteristics are the difficulties in guiding students to learn classical Chinese, which teachers can't avoid, not to mention making it a blind spot.
In the process of "point", I like to realize this "point" in various forms. The process of "point" is an important process to teach classical Chinese learning methods and cultivate classical Chinese learning habits.
Instruct students to write down key translations in classical Chinese exercise books when dialing. The rhythm of this process should be grasped according to students' comprehensive learning ability. )
? 3. race. In order to urge students to finish all the tasks in the learning process happily.
There are various forms of play at ordinary times. It not only stimulates students' interest in learning, but also achieves the teaching goal, and nourishes students with the essence of China traditional culture.
The form and content of the competition can be flexible. Competition reading, competition translation, competition understanding, competition extension, competition rewriting, competition recitation, competition dictation and so on.
3. How to learn classical Chinese 1? How to learn classical Chinese? A: This question cannot be explained clearly in a few words.
But there are also some methods worth learning. The main points of these methods are: reading aloud and reciting; Prioritize; Knowledge classification; Scientific translation training; The training of reasoning. This book provides some methods worth trying.
2. How to read and recite efficiently? A: Reading and reciting should follow the scientific method. There are two ways to read aloud: ① Read aloud according to the rhythm.
On the basis of mastering the content and emotion of the article, the emotion and style of the article are expressed by controlling the tone and rhythm. Only in this way can we get a sense of language accurately.
You'd better follow the teacher's instructions. ② Read quickly.
On the basis of rhythmic reading, we should gradually speed up the speech, but we should keep the rhythm and style of the article in mind. Generally speaking, the faster the pace, the better. The function of this method is to strengthen language sense training, which is especially important in general review.
There are also some scientific methods to recite. Before practicing reciting, you must read the translation carefully with reference to the original text, so as to understand the content and ideas of the original text.
(1) Reciting by reference to the translation Read the original text first, then read the translation by reference to the original text, and then recall the corresponding original text according to the words and sentences in the translation. Repeatedly, it is simple and efficient to practice ancient translation and compare ancient and modern morphology and syntax.
(2) On the basis of understanding the original content, divide the article into several meaningful paragraphs, remember their main ideas respectively, recite them in sections according to the main ideas, and break them one by one. The advantage of doing this is that you can clearly grasp the ideas and levels of the original text and combine understanding with recitation.
(3) copying and reciting This is a method of reciting by comprehensively using eyes, mouth, hands and heart while copying and reading. "Writing once is better than reading ten times" makes you familiar, familiar with the mantra, familiar with your hands and familiar with your heart. Not only did you memorize the article, but also your understanding deepened.
(4) By grasping three long natural paragraphs, we can grasp three keys to recite: the first word of the paragraph; The first and last sentences of the paragraph; The central idea of the paragraph. Grasp these three points tightly and read the paragraph quickly, so you can remember the paragraph quickly.
3. How to prioritize a large number of words? How to get twice the result with half the effort? A: Vocabulary is the focus of classical Chinese learning. Among them, ancient and modern different meanings, polysemy, ancient and modern changes, flexible use of parts of speech and other knowledge are the key points.
Need to combine contextual understanding and memory. In the learning of notional words, we should pay attention to sorting and classifying, and strengthen understanding and memory.
When learning function words, you can't memorize them by rote. In the process of reading (especially reading aloud), we should pay attention to understanding and comprehension, and pay attention to comprehension. The content words, function words and their usage selected in this book are very representative in ancient Chinese, and they are sorted out according to their internal laws, which can be used as specific reference.
This book also provides simple and efficient methods such as "same root words", "related inference" and "one sentence". I hope students can draw inferences from others and use them flexibly. Proper nouns often become obstacles to reading, and they often don't know that they are proper nouns. What should I do? A: Proper nouns often indicate names of people, places, officials, year numbers, temples, and some special names, such as ancient punishments and unique titles in ancient Chinese, which are generally used as subjects or objects (including prepositions).
When you encounter a word that is difficult to judge by logical reasoning, see if it belongs to the subject or the object. If so, treat it as a proper noun first, and then judge what kind of proper noun it is according to the context. You don't have to understand the specific meaning, especially during the exam. Some proper nouns in ancient Chinese are no longer used now, such as "hoe thorn (farm tool)" and "hook halberd shovel (weapon)" in Qin Lun. We just need to find out what kind of proper nouns they are.
5. How should I deal with the vast amount of literary common sense? A: The purpose of learning classical Chinese is to learn language knowledge and gain the ability to read classical Chinese. The second is to master the relevant cultural concepts.
Therefore, we should distinguish the priority of literary knowledge. Important writers' works, the background closely related to the content of the article, and important events and phenomena in the history of literature are all important. For example, Qu Yuan, Sima Qian and Li Bai are important, the ancient prose movement is important, and "Fu, Bi and Xing" are important.
Can classify memories. Literary common sense is not the focus of the college entrance examination.
6. Can you talk about the general characteristics of the classical Chinese test questions in the college entrance examination? A: The classical Chinese proposition of college entrance examination generally follows three principles: the principle of learning; The principle of emphasis; The principle of testing ability. The investigation points are mainly selected from the words and sentence patterns that have appeared in the teaching materials, and mainly investigate the universally important contents in ancient Chinese.
Although the test questions choose materials that most candidates have not read, the knowledge and ability of the test are in the classroom. So we should focus on the teaching materials. Judging from the previous college entrance examination questions, the materials of classical Chinese reading questions are almost biographies, which are rare in textbooks, so they must be extended to extracurricular activities.
There are obvious rules in the reading of biographical paragraphs. Please refer to point 6 of the essentials of classical Chinese learning above. In addition, from the perspective of development, reasoning and descriptive materials will occupy a place in the future college entrance examination (which is also a requirement for improving the quality of college entrance examination papers).
The preface to Lanting Collection, Red Wall Fu and Xi Gui Qu Ci should be paid full attention to. The main types of questions are: reading choice; Sentence translation; Fill in the blanks with famous sentences.
Appreciation and evaluation may be increased in the future. In addition, the ability required by the topic of "Appreciation of Ancient Poetry" is also related to classical Chinese.
It involves about 30 points. 7. What should I do if I encounter knowledge that I haven't learned during the exam and become an obstacle to solving problems? A: You must first judge whether this knowledge really becomes an obstacle, because not all doubts are enough to affect solving problems.
It is necessary to add some knowledge to the test paper that is not in the textbook to test the ability of candidates. But this knowledge is closely related to the knowledge in the textbook. You can try the following methods: recall the relevant knowledge in the textbook and infer its general idea accordingly; Inferring the general idea from the context (which can be understood as a limited guess), sometimes you just need to master its grammatical function in the sentence.
8. How to choose and use reference books? There are many reference books in the book market. Different books often have different opinions on the same knowledge, different primary and secondary choices and uneven quality. You should choose those with strong pertinence, reasonable priority and clear system.
You may not be able to master these standards, so you'd better listen to the teacher. Ping.
4. How to learn classical Chinese well Classical Chinese is the language used by the ancients and is no longer used in our real life. But it is the source of modern literature and still affects modern literature in various ways. Therefore, to really learn modern Chinese well, we must have a solid foundation in classical Chinese. The writers and scholars of the older generation, such as Lu Xun, Mao Dun, Qian Zhongshu and Liang Shiqiu, all have deep roots in ancient Chinese, and their works are full of rich classical flavor, with concise, accurate and elegant language. Mr. Lu Xun read and studied a large number of ancient novels since he was a child, which had a great influence on his later novel creation. Mao Dun's skill in reciting A Dream of Red Mansions has always been praised. Qian Zhongshu was first a generation of scholars, proficient in Chinese and Western studies, especially Chinese studies, and then a writer. The world only knows that there is a besieged city, but it doesn't know that there is a cone; Liang Shiqiu is proficient in classics and a subset of classics and history, which is reflected in his prose works. Not only is the language quaint and simple, but it is easy to put up, the usage of allusions is handy, and the music is wonderful. Liang's extensive reading and practical work are really amazing.
So, how can we learn classical Chinese well in senior high school? The following is a brief introduction to several learning methods:
First, master the basic language structure. Classical Chinese can be roughly divided into words and sentences. Among them, words include content words and function words; Sentences can be divided into five categories: judgmental sentences, passive sentences, inverted sentences, ellipsis sentences and fixed sentences. It is the basis of learning classical Chinese to master the language structure of classical Chinese systematically and understand its differences and connections with modern Chinese.
Second, correctly break sentences. There are no punctuation marks in ancient Chinese characters, so how to break sentences directly affects the understanding of the content of the article. The following points should be paid attention to in correctly breaking sentences: understanding keywords and judging the relationship between words; Understand a certain appreciation of ancient culture; Master the rules of dialogue, reporting and quotation in the text; According to the words at the beginning and end of the sentence and the idioms in the sentence.
Third, learn the correct translation methods. The principles of classical Chinese translation are: faithful to the original text, stereotyped words, literal translation as the main, free translation as the auxiliary. The following points should be paid attention to in translation: supplement the omitted parts; Adjust the word order; Increase or decrease appropriately.
Fourth, repeat reading. As the saying goes, if you read a book a hundred times, its meaning will show itself. Reading more books can cultivate a sense of language and achieve the purpose of reading other ancient works skillfully. In addition, classical Chinese pays great attention to the inner rhythm and rhythm, and repeated reading can fully appreciate the musical beauty of the works and improve the interest in learning.
5. How to deal with the relationship between "speech" and "text" in classical Chinese reading teaching? How to deal with the relationship between "Wen" and "Yan" in classical Chinese teaching Publisher: Lin Wenxin Date: 201-04-26 ◆ Handling of "Yan" and "Wen" in classical Chinese teaching. As the name implies, one is "speech" and the other is "writing". Whether the teaching of classical Chinese can reflect its proper connotation and its own teaching rules depends on how you handle the contradiction between "speaking" and "writing". Judging from the daily situation of classical Chinese teaching, the biggest mistakes in classroom teaching, or the problems that have the greatest influence on the quality and effect of classical Chinese teaching, are these two. "Yan" and "Wen" must be integrated. Classical Chinese must be taught in a basic way, and "speech" and "writing" must be integrated. However, after forming this understanding, there are still some concrete and real deep-seated problems worth exploring and thinking about in teaching practice, that is, how to integrate. The understanding of "Yan" in daily teaching is often not in place. Now many teachers are aware of the importance of "Yan", but his understanding of this "Yan" is very narrow. He believes that the so-called "words" in classical Chinese are knowledge, and even have a narrower understanding. Just like our high school, some people think that "Yan" in classical Chinese is the grammar of ancient Chinese. Although this understanding pays attention to the combination of the two, in fact, we still have not fully grasped the fundamental task of classical Chinese teaching. The connotation of language is not clear. ◆ The word "Yan" in classical Chinese refers to: vocabulary accumulation, ancient Chinese grammar, reading method and sense of classical Chinese language. The word "Yan" in classical Chinese has many levels and aspects, and I have sorted out five aspects. The first is the accumulation of words, which everyone cares about. I think we should separate the word accumulation and mainly emphasize the substantive words. Real accumulation. As far as I know, function words are different from content words. It is not the same thing to master which function words in the process of repeated reading, so this is a course. What about the second one? I think the word "Yan" in classical Chinese requires a little understanding of the grammar of ancient Chinese. What's more, from the perspective of teaching and learning classical Chinese by myself, it may be more efficient to know a little. What about the third one? I think it is more important to master the reading method and interpretation method of classical Chinese, which has its own characteristics, and this is the basic connotation of the speech. One of them is often overlooked by our teachers and ourselves (does xu teacher agree with me?). In fact, this "speech" in classical Chinese has a very important sense of language, which should be said to be the highest realm of "speech" in classical Chinese, because students start to do questions from the college entrance examination. Judging from the process of reading simple Yi Wen at ordinary times, he really didn't apply it to analysis. It is necessary to recall that there are several images in this poem, and there are not many sets. After the formation of language sense, it is your ability to read simple classical Chinese as stipulated in the curriculum standard. So I may not have listed them all. I think the connotation of this word should be fully understood. ◆ Connotation of "Wen" in classical Chinese teaching: Besides "Classical Chinese", articles, literature and culture also include articles, literature and culture. So as far as the level of "literature" is concerned, there are at least three levels. For example, the story of Yueyang Tower that we are teaching today is worth learning from the perspective of article study. If we only grasp a word and give up such a good structure, many tasks that classical Chinese teaching should undertake will not be reflected. Then there are many things in the article itself, so I won't talk about them here. The article itself is also very rich, with many works in classical Chinese. Like Wolf is a novel. In this novel, we can not only learn words, but also learn some literary qualities of the novel. ◆ How to integrate "word" and "text" in classical Chinese teaching? The connotations of "Wen" and "Yan" should jump out of the previous narrow understanding. On this basis, consider how to integrate the two. Then I have a basic idea about the integration of the two, that is, we should teach on the basis of words, and in the process of teaching words, we should integrate the connotation of the text and jump out of narrow words. So speaking of this, I think, today I listened to two classical Chinese reading classes given by two teachers in Fan Jing Middle School, and I still have some ideas about this. Their embodiment is also in place. For example, the first teacher, Wolf, the teacher surnamed Ma may know that every step of her whole teaching process is based on words. The first step is to sort out the knowledge of classical Chinese, which is a very centralized and direct method to solve the problem of writing. Then the second step is to ask the students to retell the story of the wolf. This retelling is actually a kind of speech activity, that is, the speech activity of classical Chinese. Besides, I really appreciate this kind of activity. She jumped out of the simple and single form of equivalent translation and told stories at the third level. In fact, storytelling still focuses on an understanding of words. Students accept internalization and then express it. Then there was a detail that impressed me particularly. She caught the main idea of Wolf, and caught a sentence, "The Wolf is too weak" and "And" Stop laughing. She grasps an "meaning" and an "ear" to let students taste and think. I think this is the most typical combination of "Yan" and "Wen". The theme of the novel, the image of the wolf and the taste of poetry are a successful teaching treatment of combining "words" with "literature". What is classical Chinese reading and what is reading? The so-called reading means that teachers take students in and out, and so does classical Chinese reading. Teacher Ma just gave an example, which is actually the case. She first came out of the text and grasped the characteristics of the wolf, and then the characteristics of the wolf were formed, instead of walking on an overhead height and returning to the text. This process of going in and out should be said to be a relatively correct reading teaching. Reflected in classical Chinese, it can be said that the combination of language and literature is seamless and the effect is very ideal.
6. How to learn classical Chinese well To learn classical Chinese well, we should do more topics in this field or read more books on classical Chinese, and translate more articles and stories in classical Chinese, so as to improve the level of classical Chinese.
Classical Chinese teaching is an important part of Chinese teaching, and classical Chinese test questions are the highlight of college entrance examination. Students often ask, how to learn classical Chinese well so as not to lose points in the college entrance examination? I think if we can pay attention to the following points, we can learn classical Chinese well and improve the hit rate of the college entrance examination. First of all, we must have relevant historical knowledge.
As the saying goes, literature and history are not separated. Everyone lives in an era, and the politics, economy and culture of this era will certainly have an impact on him.
Therefore, only by understanding the era of this person's life can we understand the connotation of his works. For example, Qu Yuan advocated reform and hoped that Chu would be strong, but the king of Chu was "confused by Zheng Xiu at home and bullied by Zhang Yi abroad", alienated Qu Yuan first, and then exiled him to the Miluo River, which made his reform ambition impossible and buried him in the river.
Knowing this history, it is much easier for us to understand Li Sao. Second, have relevant cultural common sense.
China's ancient culture is profound and rich in connotation, and many contents are constantly evolving with the development of history. Such as name and title, official position and imperial examination, geographical knowledge, patriarchal manners and customs, clothing and utensils, calendar criminal law, ancient book annotation style, etc., are greatly different from ancient times to modern times.
Although students don't need to master all these contents, they should also accumulate what they encounter in their studies as their own knowledge reserves, so that they can call them at any time in classical Chinese learning and exams. Third, learn to "solve the belly of the ancients with the heart of the present."
We live in today's society, and in the face of disasters, we will unite as one. In the face of ugliness, they will attack and lash; We will work together to resist external humiliation. In fact, this kind of thoughts and feelings are in the same strain.
In the face of external humiliation, Wen Tianxiang wrote: "Since ancient times, no one has died, keeping the heart of Dan to shine in the history of history." Facing the sufferings of the people, Du Fu wrote: "The wine in Zhumen stinks and the bones on the road freeze to death." Therefore, when we study ancient Chinese, we should be good at comparing and associating the feelings of the ancients with those of today, so as to try to figure out the thoughts of the ancients and accurately understand the essence reflected by classical Chinese. Fourth, grasp the teaching materials and lay a solid foundation for classical Chinese.
When learning classical Chinese, we must master the knowledge points that appear in textbooks: ① Phonetic sounds, including polyphonic characters and different reading characters. ② Meaning, including ancient and modern different meanings, polysemy and flexible use of parts of speech.
③ Sentence patterns in classical Chinese, including special sentence patterns and complex sentences in classical Chinese. Fifth, to learn a classical Chinese, we should do the following: first, grasp the article as a whole and understand its main contents; Secondly, put the understanding of paragraphs into the overall grasp of the text; Third, in the specific language environment, we can further understand the words in the context; Finally, on the basis of the first three conditions, further understand the deep meaning of the article.
In short, if you can do the above in your usual study, you will lay a solid foundation for the college entrance examination. - .
Classical Chinese refers to articles written in classical Chinese. In the new Chinese textbook issued by the Ministry of Education in 2000, the proportion of classical Chinese in the first year of high school has risen to 50%, and the weight of classical Chinese in the Chinese test paper of the college entrance examination is also increasing.
This really brings great difficulties to our study, and students are afraid of difficulties. In fact, it is not difficult to learn classical Chinese well, as long as we start from the following two aspects: first, master the correct learning method 1 and practice it repeatedly.
In the Song Dynasty, Zhu said, "Read it a hundred times, and you can understand yourself. You read well, you don't need to explain, and you know what it means. "
The ancients were very clever. When children enter school, the teacher doesn't talk much about theory, but asks them to recite the three-character classics, the four books and the five classics over and over again, and the meaning of the article will naturally be understood. Mr. Li Guotao, a famous literary critic and novelist, said: "China's ancient poetry and prose can't be ignored.
If you didn't understand it at that time or didn't fully understand it, then recite it first. "Mr. Guo Moruo also said," When I was a child, the books I memorized, like a big iceberg, will slowly melt with age, and once they melt, they will be great wealth. "
It can be seen that the easiest and quickest way to learn classical Chinese is to read more and recite more, so as to reach the realm of "knowing 300 poems of Tang poetry, knowing how to recite without writing". 2. Word accumulation.
Learning classical Chinese is like learning a foreign language. Without enough vocabulary, everything is a castle in the air and an armchair strategist, so vocabulary accumulation is the basis of learning classical Chinese well. Word accumulation can be divided into two categories: content word accumulation and function word accumulation.
Relatively speaking, content words are easier to remember, while function words are more difficult to remember, because function words in classical Chinese are abstract in meaning, frequently used and flexible in usage. At this time, it is not difficult to remember with some flexible and ingenious methods.
For example, there are 23 places where the function word "er" is used in "Zuiwengting Ji" by Ouyang Xiu, and we can classify its usage into five kinds, which is easier to remember. (1) "Deep-flowing fish fertilizer" means parallel relationship; (2) "The sunrise makes the forest blossom" means to inherit the relationship; (3) "Miscellaneous, but the former", indicating the relationship of modification; (4) "Less drunk, but the highest age" indicates a progressive relationship.
⑤ "Birds know the joy of mountains, but don't know the joy of people", which indicates a turning point. 3. Grammatical induction.
In a classical Chinese, students are confused by the use of fallacies, prepositions and postpositions, and different meanings between ancient and modern times. What should I do? We might as well use induction to classify and summarize. We can draw a brief table and mark the common words, movable parts of speech, ancient and modern different meanings, polysemy, interrogative sentences, judgmental sentences, passive sentences, ellipsis sentences and variant sentences in the table, which will be clear at a glance and easy to remember. Second, establish a correct learning attitude.
1, love classical Chinese and cultivate interest. Some students complained that we don't need classical Chinese today, so why should we learn anything? This statement is very poor: First of all, classical Chinese is the bearing form of all ancient cultures in China.
Medicine, mathematics, astronomy and geography are all written in classical Chinese and have been handed down to this day. Classical Chinese is a valuable asset with a long history. If we don't understand it, how can we appreciate the classical profoundness of China culture? Secondly, most idioms and allusions in modern Chinese come from classical Chinese.
For example, looking for fish from the edge of the forest (Yu Zi Hui Liang Wang Shang), making friends far away, attacking nearby (".