The so-called benevolence and benevolence are part of what we call human studies today, and this "person" is the "person" of "person". The "benevolence" advocated by Confucius is to have the heart to love others. Confucius put forward "don't do to others what you don't want others to do to you", which is similar to today's moral golden rule. As my teacher Mr. Ji Xianlin put it, it is also difficult to achieve * * * productism. Some scholars agree with this conclusion. Therefore, this is a very high moral standard. It is very valuable for Confucius to put forward such an idea at that time and establish a set of "benevolence" ideological system.
Mencius, named Monk (about 372 BC ~ about 289 BC), was a thinker and educator in China during the Warring States Period. Originally from Zou, he lived in Qi for a long time. As one of the successors of Confucianism, he is not limited by Confucianism, but adopts an open mind. Confucianism developed into Mencius period and absorbed many new cultural contents. As a result, Mencius developed Confucius' thought of benevolent governance into a kind of benevolent governance theory. From benevolent governance to rulers, the top leaders should care about their own people and be benevolent, and Confucianism took a step forward. He developed Confucius' thoughts of "rule by courtesy" and "rule by virtue", advocated "kingly way" and "benevolent government", and personally went to Qi, Liang, Lu, Zou, Song, Teng and other countries to lobby governors. Mencius attached great importance to what Confucius said, "Don't do to others what you don't want others to do to you." He further suggested that saints should live with the heart of the world, share their joys with the world, and share their worries with the world. "People are happy when they are happy; People worry about people, people worry about people. " If you are happy with the world, you will be worried about it. However, if you are not the king, you will have nothing. "("Mencius Liang Wang Hui Xia ") This idea of" benevolent governance "was put forward by Mencius. After many conversations with the rulers of Qi, it was spread and expanded.
Monk's "king" is "taking morality as benevolence" Monk believes that "different people have different opinions, and the wise have different opinions, which is irresistible." In other words, no one can use "benevolent government" to stop the unification of the world. He believes that to implement "benevolent government", we must first win "popular support" and the rulers should treat the people with "benevolence". He also proposed to attach importance to the people. He said, "The people are the most important, the country is the second, and the monarch is the light." .
The foundation of benevolent government thought is the theory of good nature. The basic meaning and profundity of the theory of goodness of human nature lies in emphasizing that human nature should first be the social attribute of human beings, not the natural attribute of human beings; Affirming the value of life, encouraging people to pursue the perfect realm of life, with a strong idealistic color, established the unique value orientation of Confucianism. Back to directory >>& gt
From a hundred schools of thought to a hundred schools of thought.
To the third master, Xunzi, a master of Confucianism after Confucius and Mencius, the world honored him as Xun Qing. Xunzi himself is not from Shandong, but he has lived in Shandong for a long time and studied in Qi. Especially in the early Warring States period, the famous "Jixia Academy" was established in the capital of Qi State. He is the "teacher who offers the most wine" and has trained a large number of scholars in this "Jixia Academy". This school can be said to be very similar to today's colleges and universities, but it is not a pure undergraduate school, but a school with the nature of a research institute, similar to today's Academy of Social Sciences.
During the Warring States Period, many great thinkers, such as Mencius, Xunzi, Song Shuo, etc., all went in and out of Xia Ji, and some were unknown or not well known by later generations, such as Chunyu Kun, Zou Yan, and other yin and yang scholars, legalists and Taoists. The so-called nine schools of thought, or the main schools of thought, all gathered in Gong Xue, Xia Ji.
As a teacher, he is actually the dean of Jixia Academy. Xunzi once "sacrificed wine for three reasons", and he trained a large number of master scholars, which can be described as a full house of disciples. His thoughts make Confucianism both kingly and overbearing. Xunzi's thought absorbed Taoism and Legalism in Qi culture, but it did not leave Confucius' thought in essence. Therefore, the thoughts of the three masters representing primitive Confucianism are slightly different.
However, until the Warring States period, Confucianism was only one of many schools, or one of nine schools. After the mid-Warring States period, its status gradually improved, and it was called "outstanding learning" together with Mohism. The so-called "outstanding" means outstanding, standing out from the nine schools and ten schools, and being on an equal footing with Mohism, but sometimes Mohism is more powerful.
During the Qin Dynasty, Qin Shihuang adopted the policy of "burning books to bury Confucianism". Many historians believe that many Confucian works were also burned by Qin Shihuang. Therefore, during the Qin Shihuang period, Confucianism was impacted to a certain extent.
In the early Han Dynasty, Confucianism was not taken seriously. In the early Han Dynasty, the rulers believed in Taoism, which was then called "the study of Huang Lao". Because the rulers in the early Han Dynasty thought that using the "inaction" of the Huang family could alleviate social contradictions. Results In the early Han Dynasty, the Taoist thought of Huang Lao was always followed, which really eased social contradictions and improved productivity to some extent. But as an imperial dynasty and the highest feudal ruler, it is impossible for him to "govern by doing nothing" for a long time.
Therefore, during the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, he enlightened many times, and as a result, a Confucian master named Dong Zhongshu appeared. He put forward a resounding slogan of "ousting a hundred schools and respecting Confucianism alone" in "Three Strategies for Heaven and Man", hoping that Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty could abolish other schools and erect the banner of Confucianism. Back to directory >>& gt
Xenophobic Confucianism actually blends various ideological systems.
In fact, although Dong Zhongshu put forward the idea of "ousting a hundred schools of thought and respecting Confucianism alone", he did not actually respect Confucianism alone. In his book The Story of the Spring and Autumn Period, it can be said that Confucianism, Taoism and Yin and Yang thoughts are integrated, especially many thoughts of Zou Yan, a Yin and Yang expert in Qi State. Therefore, scholars in the history of China's philosophy call it Dong Zhongshu's ideological system. In other words, the so-called system of "ousting a hundred schools of thought and respecting Confucianism alone" he established mainly integrated Confucianism and Yin and Yang scholars. So their rule, in the eyes of the people, is in line with God's will.
Therefore, from the beginning of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, emperors of all dynasties began their letters with "Fengtian as the carrier and the emperor wrote a letter". In fact, this is not pure Confucianism, but the result of the combination of Confucianism and Yin and Yang. It was from this time that I personally felt that Confucianism began its own division, that is, after Dong Zhongshu, it was divided into three parts, one was political Confucianism, the other was academic Confucianism and the other was folk Confucianism.
Political Confucianism, starting from Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, almost every emperor went to Mount Tai to meditate because of the thinking mode of combining Yin and Yang of Confucianism. The so-called meditation activity is to tell the people all over the world that I, as the emperor, obey my fate. So from that time on, the emperor was called "the son of heaven". Political Confucianism was actually monopolized by emperors and dynasties.
It should be said that Confucius Temple plays a certain role in political Confucianism. In fact, as a tool of political Confucianism, Confucius Temple did not play a good role, but as a carrier of folk Confucianism, it played a greater role. Some people in academic circles suggested that Confucianism should be a museum. The so-called "museum", that is, Confucianism no longer exists, can only be found in museums and history textbooks If this viewpoint is applied to political Confucianism, I think it is very appropriate. Confucianism, as the part that served the feudal emperors, is really dying out, and there is no longer a foothold in the real society.
However, the other two kinds of Confucianism and political Confucianism are not exactly the same, but different, especially academic Confucianism. Now some people are paying attention to moral Confucianism. Because of the time, I won't explain it here. In the field of academic Confucianism, I personally think that from Confucius, Mencius and Xunzi to today, it has experienced five relatively large stages of development. The first stage is the "Confucianism alone" stage, specifically the era of Confucius, Mencius and Xunzi, which is basically the "Confucianism alone" period. Are there any Confucian scholars who respect Confucianism after them? Yes However, I have looked through the relevant cases of Confucianism, especially some cases in the Song and Ming Dynasties, such as the cases in the Song and Yuan Dynasties, the cases of Confucianism in the Ming Dynasty and so on. And I found that few people really abide by the Confucian system, probably only two or three schools. Therefore, Confucianism mostly absorbs foreign cultures in schools, such as Taoism, Taoism or Buddhism. Gradually formed the second stage, that is, the complementary type of Confucianism and Taoism, which was the most prominent in Wei and Jin Dynasties. Wei and Jin dynasties are divided into two directions, one is the complementarity of Confucianism and Taoism, and the other is the complementarity of Confucianism and Taoism, each with its own emphasis. During the Wei and Jin Dynasties, many thinkers, including many famous metaphysical figures in Wei and Jin Dynasties, were representatives of complementary Confucianism and Taoism. Secondly, Taoism is one of the most important schools of thought in China during the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period. In the early years of the Western Han Dynasty, Emperor Wen of Han and Emperor Jing of Han ruled the country with Taoist thoughts, so that the people could recuperate from the tyranny of the Qin Dynasty. History calls it the rule of cultural scene. He first put forward the idea of "ousting a hundred schools of thought and respecting Confucianism alone", and then followed Taoist thought. Although Taoism has not been officially adopted, it continues to play an important role in the development of China's ancient thoughts. Metaphysics in Wei and Jin Dynasties and Neo-Confucianism in Song and Ming Dynasties were developed by combining Taoist thoughts. It is generally believed that one of the characteristics of Taoist thought is to fantasize about achieving immortality through various health-preserving practices, "thus creating TCM health-preserving science"; Or from the perspective of investigating the origin of health preservation: "The theory of infinite life extension comes from philosophy, especially the theory of Laozi and Zhuangzi." Joseph Needham, a famous historian of science in China, emphasized in his History of Science and Technology in China that "Taoism is the foundation of science and technology in China" and that studying Taoism is "extremely important for understanding all science and technology in China". But he also thinks: "Taoist thought has been clinging to the idea that it is possible to achieve immortality from the beginning"; "Taoism is obsessed with youth with solid muscles and rich skin color. They believe that they can find technologies that can be used to inhibit the aging process or rejuvenate. " It can be seen that Joseph Needham and many historians of science naturally attribute the origin of the idea of pursuing immortality and various specific health preservation methods such as food, guidance, accommodation and qi to Taoism and its ideological system. However, if we carefully examine the pre-Qin Taoist views on the issue of "life and death", it is not difficult to find that the above views are not the purpose of Taoism. In Laozi, although there is no direct discussion about human life and death, it is impossible to believe in immortality from the purpose that everything must not violate the laws of nature, that is, "the wind will not stop and the showers will not last all day"; "Heaven and earth can't last long, what about people?" Zhuangzi, written later, has a clear explanation that life and death are the laws of nature, such as: "Those who fail to follow the right path in their lifetime will prosper in knowledge"; "Life and death, life also." "You can't be born with it, but you can't stop it." In "Zhuangzi", the manifestations of Taoist thought are expounded by fables and stories, although Peng Zu, who was "on the verge of danger and down to his fifth uncle", is mentioned; In the dialogue between Nanbo Zi Kui and Nvluo, there is "Although the child is big, if the color is obedient, why not do it"; I have heard Jieyu's words, such as "the mountain photographed by the ancients, inhabited by gods, with skin like ice and snow and heart like a virgin" [⑩] and so on. But these descriptions cannot be used as an example of Taoism's pursuit of immortality. Because Taoism quotes these stories and rumors, the purpose is to explain that everything should not be pursued deliberately, that is, the so-called "the world thinks that shaping is enough to survive, but the fruit of shaping is not enough to survive, then the world is full of ridicule." In addition, in the dialogue written in the name of Yao, Zhuangzi more clearly expressed the Taoist thought of "I don't know life, I don't know death", so I can be a "real person": "Long life, rich wealth, many people, and human desires. What's wrong with a woman who doesn't want to be alone? " Yao said, "Many people are afraid, but too much money is harmful, and a long life is humiliating. These three are not so eye-catching, so I quit. " There are many similar words, but they all illustrate the fact that Taoism in the pre-Qin period, as a philosophical ideological system, not only did not pursue the idea of immortality, but also opposed it. The Taoist view that shaping is not enough to survive the world, or the explanation of life phenomena such as "being born and dying, being born after death", is not only to make people understand the absurdity of pursuing immortality, but more importantly, to explain the laws of nature and the ideological purpose of "Taoism is natural" with the help of the irresistible fact that "being born after death" best embodies the laws of nature. Taoism advocates "health preservation", but this concept does not include the pursuit of longevity. Zhuangzi once supported Bo in Zizhou by letting the world go, but Zizhou supported Bo with examples such as "treating diseases with sorrow, treating diseases with righteousness, and relaxing in the world first". Zi advised Zhao Nuo to compete for the land of neighboring countries with "two arms are more important than the world", explaining that "this way is also extraordinary" and "those who can respect their lives are rich." You can't "ignore your body for profit" [14]. If we refer to the discussion of "body" and "longevity" in Han Feizi's Xianxue, we can see the difference between these two concepts more clearly: today or people say: If you make your son smart and live long, the world will be crazy. Wisdom, sex; Life, life also. The living don't learn from others. The reason why this world is called crazy is that people can't do what they can. Some people are here today. They are not in Chengwei, not in the army, and they do not care about the interests of the world. The Lord will treat it with courtesy, thinking that those who despise things and are reborn are also ... today, those who despise things are reborn, and those who advocate death and re-martyrdom are not available. Although we must consider the influence of Yang Zhu School when talking about the idea of "keeping in good health", and whether some contents of Zhuangzi's Miscellaneous Articles are written by later scholars, it is very clear that both Taoism's "keeping in good health" and Yang Zhu's "keeping in good health" are originally explanations of life values.