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Image reference: upload.wikimedia/ * * */zh/thumb/c/CD/Socrates/200px-Socrates Name: σ ω κ ρ? τη? Birth: Died about 470 years ago: School/School 399 years ago: Ancient Greece, Socratic School's main fields: philosophy of science, ethics Socrates' teaching method Perhaps Socrates' most important contribution to western thought should be his dialectics (answering questions with questions), which is called Socrates' teaching method or questioning, and Socrates applies it to many important moral issues such as God and justice. This earliest record comes from Plato's Socrates Dialogue. Socrates is usually regarded as the founder of human political philosophy and ethics or moral philosophy, and is also one of the main ideological roots of western philosophy. In this way, Socrates will use a series of questions to help a person or a group of people judge their beliefs, such as the existence of God or justice, and find loopholes in their answers to break them, thus increasing their knowledge. This method belongs to the passive method of hypothesis exclusion. As the subjects admit the further hypothesis, contradictions will inevitably arise in the process of excluding the previous hypothesis. This method is used to force a person to examine his own beliefs and the authenticity of such beliefs. [Editor] It is not a simple matter to study Socrates' philosophical belief; Because he didn't leave any works of his own, we can only explore from Plato and Xenophon's records. But their records are often contradictory, so which record is correct has always been a controversial topic. Some people think that Socrates actually has no specific beliefs, but only interrogates each belief; His long theory published in the Republic is also considered as Plato's idea. Some people claim that he doesn't actually have his own beliefs or theories, but there are many arguments about this, because it is quite difficult to distinguish the concepts of Plato and Socrates from the records, and it is even more difficult to explain their concepts. Therefore, it is not easy to find Socrates' thoughts from Plato and Xenophon's records. At the same time, it should be noted that these views are probably not put forward by Socrates himself, and may be closer to the views of these writers. Image reference: upload.wikimedia/ * * */Mons/Thumb /b/B7/ %C2%A7Platone_%28ca. _ 427-347 _ A.C.% 29 _ _ Monaco% 2c _ glyptotek _ _% 28 foto _ mia% 2c _ 24-01-2002% 29 _ _ 02 JPG/ 200px-%C2% A7platone _% 28ca。 _ 427-347 _ A.C.% 29 _-_ _ Monaco% 2c _-%28 foto _ mia% 2c _ 24-01-2002% 29 School: Ancient Greece, the main fields of Platonism: metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, aesthetics, politics, pedagogy. Famous Thought: Platonism Many dialogues written by Plato are mixed with human elements. Before each discussion and debate, Plato would reserve space and time on the stage to make readers feel involved. Dialogue is often recorded by someone who is not involved in the initial dialogue process, and the whole dialogue process is often listened to from the perspective of many people. Generally speaking, no more than three people will actively participate in the dialogue at the same time, and sometimes different people will join or quit the dialogue. Some dialogues are only between two people, without the participation of a third party. Plato's two dialogues (the well-known Debate and the unknown Menek Senu) are only Socrates' own speeches. The artificial component of dialogue also provides quite important clues for judging the interpretation mode of dialogue. The contrast between different dialogues is also puzzling. Socrates often compares philosophy with children and always denies the latter for the former (protagoras, Chapter 209a-e). He also compared philosophy with food (chapter 3 13c- 3 14c). Socrates often compares philosophers with doctors (iatros), describing that philosophers can cure people's most serious disease-mental ignorance, which is also the origin of the term psychology-spirit-doctor today. Socrates believes that the human body is the prison of the soul, and it is difficult to reconcile the body and the soul. This difference is often mentioned today. Socrates also described himself as a spiritual midwife, trying to help others cultivate correct philosophical thoughts. The topics of concern in the dialogue all revolve around the relationship between human nature and political virtue. Discussions under these two items also include religious piety, self-restraint, courage, friendship and love. A question that is often asked is, virtue can't be taught, what is virtue? Knowledge and public opinion, feeling and reality, nature and man-made, body and soul, happiness and pain, crime and punishment, etc. , have been discussed in more than one conversation. Others include the immortality of the soul, the role of art and literature, the treatment of women and slaves, the form of * * and so on. There are few fields of human knowledge that Plato is not interested in, and there are few fields of knowledge that Plato has not explored in depth. Image reference: upload.wikimedia/ * */Mons/Thumb /a/A4/ Aristotle s _ Louvre/180 px- Aristotle s _ Louvre Image reference: zh. * * */Skins- 1.5/mon/images/Magnify-clip。 What he is particularly opposed to is the part about mathematics in Plato's philosophy. Some people think that Aristotle was familiar with mathematics at that time, but he never understood Plato's mathematics. In addition, Aristotle also criticized Plato's theory of phase. Although he agrees that the "form" of a thing cannot be changed, he believes that this "form" does not exist in itself, but is a concept formed after people feel the real thing. So he thinks that "shape" is actually the characteristic of things themselves. He pointed out that any idea or concept we have enters our consciousness through our senses. But Aristotle does not deny that man is rational. It is with reason that people can distinguish different sensory impressions. But at the same time, he pointed out that reason is completely vacuum before human senses experience anything. Aristotle believes that there is a causal relationship in nature. He thinks there are four different reasons in nature. The concept of "cause" in ancient Greece is different from the concept of "cause and effect" in modern times. "Cause" corresponds to "Why" but not to "Result". That is, objective reasons, material reasons, dynamic reasons and formal reasons. Aristotle put forward the so-called syllogism in logic. In the next two thousand years, his theory has been the only recognized form of argument in the West. In ethics, Aristotle emphasized the so-called "golden ratio". This may be similar to the concept of "harmony" of Greek naturalist philosophers. He believes that people should not be biased towards any extreme, and only balance can lead a happy and harmonious life. Aristotle believes that man is a natural political animal, and unless he lives in society, he is not a real man. He also proposed three good political systems: monarchy, aristocratic politics and democratic politics (which he called "regime").
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Socrates: Socrates is the first of the three great philosophers in Greece. Together with Plato and Aristotle, he laid the philosophical foundation of western culture. Because he was born in the chaotic period of the ancient Greek war, his moral value was low, so Socrates believed that everyone must "know himself" in order to support the ethical situation in his life at that time. Socrates had no works in his life, and his words, deeds and thoughts were handed down by his disciples Plato and Zhi Nuo Fen. His main idea is: 1. The purpose and method of education: Socrates is a great philosopher and educator. He believes that the purpose of education is to pursue perfection, cultivate moral character and develop psychological ability; He believes that the purpose of education is the purpose of life: the purpose of life is to seek goodness, and the reason why human beings can achieve the best is to devote themselves to moral cultivation in order to complete their ideal personality. Sue acknowledged the existence of objective truth and advocated the necessity of self-effort. The former is knowledge, the latter is virtue; The unity of knowledge and morality is Socrates' ideal personality. His intention is to establish a system with morality as the concrete shelf and knowledge as the abstract content. He regards "friendship", "courage" and "humility" as moral concepts, and the expansion of personality depends on the richness of conceptual knowledge. And "knowing yourself" or introspection is the only way to achieve this educational goal. Socrates often uses cross-examination method, also known as Socrates method, when discussing related issues with people. This method has the following characteristics: (1) Suspicion, Socrates believes that all knowledge comes from difficulties. The more you strive for progress, the more difficulties you have and the greater your progress. Sushi's so-called "doubt" is a method of studying knowledge and discussing problems. For the purpose of doubt, it begins with doubt and ends with doubt, and the result is nothing (2) In the discussion, we use the method of conversation and debate as a technique to seek the correct definition of truth and concept. The discovery of truth is carried out in the method of discussion and question and answer, so some people call this method "midwifery", which is the art of intellectual midwifery. They think that knowledge originally exists in the other person's mind, but he himself is covered up by other wrong ideas and has not found it. Sue compared herself to a midwife, and used the method of cocoon reeling from the conversation to let the other side gradually understand their ignorance, discover their mistakes and establish a correct view of knowledge. Conversation depends on questions and answers to find out the other person's thoughts and let him discover the truth himself. Only in conversation, Sue focuses on asking questions, and he doesn't answer each other's questions easily. He only asked the other party to answer his questions. He asked questions with humility, and the other party elicited information about other questions in his answer, until finally, due to constant questioning, the youth admitted his ignorance. In the process of asking questions, Sue gave students the highest wisdom, which is the famous Socratic irony. Socrates' whole method is enlightening and can also be called a method of discovery. Summarize a definition by induction. Arista, once said, "Socrates can be attributed to induction and definition". 2. The influence of Soviet thought Socrates' thought had a deafening influence on the chaotic Athens ideological circle at that time; Socrates' personality, for ordinary Athenian citizens, also has the educational function of "greedy for husbands and cheap" and "coward" His contributions to later generations are as follows: (1) improving philosophical methods-establishing the initial foundation of inductive methods; (2) Being the first person to systematically learn knowledge conditions; (3) Establish an epistemological system; (3) Establishing an ethical system; (3) The moral science questioning methods of "synthesis" and "analysis" of the Soviet Union are established. In terms of epistemology, Socrates should belong to rationalism (Rationali ***). Socrates believes that the source of knowledge is rationality, and real knowledge is universal rather than special, formal rather than accidental, eternal rather than changing. In the final analysis, it is Socrates' ethical thought. Su's wisdom dominates all virtues. His practical morality is based on utilitarianism or expediency, and then he integrates his "golden mean" view, which also creates his extraordinary sentiment, so he is highly respected by young people. His wisdom illuminates the hearts of students; His brave martyrdom set an example of integrity for young people and also wrote immortal testimony for him. Secondly, Plato, as a philosopher, had a far-reaching influence on the development of European philosophy and even the whole culture. In particular, his epistemology, mathematical philosophy and mathematical education thought played an indelible role in promoting the formation of science and the development of mathematics under the social conditions of ancient Greece. Bai advocates talent education, and the purpose of education is to train national professionals. He divided education into two parts, namely, music and sports. Each of them has a much broader meaning than today: "Music" refers to everything belonging to the field of literary goddess, while "sports" refers to everything related to physical training and adaptation. "Music" is almost as extensive as what we call "culture", while "sports" is more extensive than what we call "sports". To engage in culture is to make people become gentlemen. Be a gentleman in the sense that Britain is familiar with (mostly because of Plato). In Plato's Athens at that time, majesty, etiquette and courage seemed to be the main qualities to be cultivated in education. From the earliest times, there has been a strict censorship system for the literature that young people are exposed to and the music that they are allowed to listen to. Mothers and nannies can only tell official stories to their children. For some reason, both Homer and Hercia were forbidden to tell this story. First of all, Homer and Hersiad said that God sometimes behaves badly and cannot play an educational role. Young people must be taught that evil will never come from God, because "God" is not the creator of all things, but only the creator of good things. Secondly, everything in education should make young people willing to die on the battlefield. Our children must be taught that slavery is more terrible than death, so they should never hear stories of good people crying, even for the death of their friends. Third, etiquette requires people never to laugh loudly, but Homer mentioned that "those happy gods laugh a lot". If children can quote this passage, how can teachers effectively condemn children's frolicking? Fourthly, some passages in Homer's poems praise the grand banquet, while others describe the desires of the gods. These are all obstacles to abstinence. Finally, there must be no stories about the happiness of bad people and the misfortune of good people; This may have the most unfortunate moral impact on the fragile mind. Meanwhile, he advocated sex education. He believes that before education, everyone's ability and degree should be separated first, and then appropriate education should be given according to everyone's suitable knowledge and learning direction. He thinks that besides paying attention to the study of mind and knowledge, physical exercise is equally important. He mentioned in Chinese that his physical training is very strict. Except for grilled fish and barbecue, no one is allowed to eat fish and meat cooked by other methods, nor are they allowed to eat any seasonings and snacks. He said that people who follow his food will never need a doctor. On the other hand, young people are not allowed to see ugliness and evil until they reach a certain age. But at the right time, we must let them see all kinds of "temptations". This shows Plato's educational view of paying equal attention to body, mind and spirit. 3. Aristotle once said: "The three necessary things to stop the revolution are * * publicity and education, respect for the law (even in the smallest matters), and legal and administrative justice." From here we can see that he attaches importance to education. Aristotle attaches great importance to teaching methods, and thinks that teaching methods should attach importance to demonstration and induction, and only through perception and thinking activities can complete knowledge be established. He opposed rigid teaching methods, so he often took his students for a walk on Garden Avenue to discuss philosophy, so later generations called Aristotle School "Free and unfettered School". He talked about education in a book by a political scholar. He said: of course, education is only for children who will become citizens; Slaves can also teach useful skills, such as cooking, but this is not part of education. Citizens should be cultivated into the form of * * * that suits their lives, so they should be different according to whether the city-state is an oligarchy or a democracy. However, in this discussion, Aristotle assumes that all citizens enjoy political rights. Children should learn what is useful to them, but they should not be vulgarized; For example, they should not be taught any techniques that distort their body image or make them make money. They want to engage in physical exercise moderately, but they can't get professional skills; The health of children trained to participate in the Olympic Games is damaged, which can be illustrated by the fact that those who are winners when they are young rarely become winners when they are adults. Children must learn to draw in order to appreciate the beauty of the human body; They should also be taught to appreciate paintings and sculptures that express moral concepts. They can learn to sing and play musical instruments, so that they can enjoy music with taste, but they are not enough to become skilled performers; Because a free man can't play music or sing unless he is drunk. Of course, they must learn to read and write, although these are also useful techniques. But the purpose of education is "virtue", not usefulness.