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Plato's knowledge, systematic and specialized knowledge, generally refers to higher education and research. The word "college" comes from akademeia, a gym outside Athens in ancient times, which was changed from Plato to a learning center. Later, the academic circle expanded to describe "the accumulation of knowledge" in Greece. The development and dissemination of academics have spanned several decades. /kloc-in the 0 th and 7 th centuries, religious scholars in Britain and France often used the word academic to refer to higher education institutions. English is called academy, and French is called Academy and Academy.
Scholars generally refer to researchers, often teachers in universities or colleges. In America, scholars and professors are almost synonymous. In Britain, there are followers, lecturers, readers and professors according to different academic levels. In other parts of the world, scholars are called scholars. Academic managers are not included.
Some sociologists will divide universities into four categories according to history: ancient universities, early universities, academic societies and modern universities. There are at least two modes of universities: the European mode developed since ancient times and the American mode (1initiated by Benjamin Franklin in the mid-7th century and1Thomas Jefferson in the mid-8th century).
Directory [hidden]
1 structure
1. 1 qualification/degree
1.2 academic conference
1.3 conflicting target
The application and theory of 1.3. 1
1.3.2 the town where the school is located and the teachers and students in the school.
1.3.3 Business and scholar funding
2 history
2. 1 ancient
2.2 Early development
2.2. 1 early methods
2.2. 1. 1 Boya Art.
2.2. 1.2 encyclopedia compiler
Peter Jabra
2.2. 1.4 scholasticism
2.3 the rise of society
2.4 18,19th century
2.5 Recent economic changes
3 academic publishing
3. 1 History of academic journals
3.2 Status quo and development
4 cap and gown
5 See also
6 reference books
7 External links
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structure
Academics are often divided into disciplines and fields. This is the three studies and four subjects set by scholars' thinking mode in the first university in medieval Europe.
With the change of time, human beings constantly revise and create disciplines and fields. Since the Enlightenment, the academic field has become more and more specialized and the research scope has become smaller and smaller. Therefore, interdisciplinary research often wins awards in today's academic circles. This has also caused difficulties in actual management and funds. In fact, many interdisciplinary studies in the past later became specialized fields today, such as cognitive science. In short, this is the historical process of academic internal differentiation.
Many academic institutions reflect the division of disciplines in administrative structure, such as courses in different fields or departments or colleges. Although there are some overlapping parts (college members, researchers and administrators), usually each college has its own administrative and financial appropriations. In addition, academic institutions generally have an overall administrative structure that is beyond the control of a single college, discipline or field. Academic autonomy is an important part of academic career and research, which ensures that academic circles are relatively free from political and financial pressures.
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Qualifications/degrees
Degrees are awarded to those who have completed major academic courses and obtained qualification certificates. The typical order is that students complete their bachelor's degree, then their master's degree and finally their doctor's degree. This has only recently been regulated in Europe as part of the Bronn process. Although teachers and scholars with master's degrees are very common in some professional and creative fields, researchers and professors with doctoral degrees and other ultimate degrees are more common in many other fields.
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academic conference
In academic conferences and lectures closely related to academic publishing, some intellectuals in this field are often invited to explain their ideas to a wider audience in books or papers. The authors of these articles use these opportunities to further explain the ambiguities in their works. At academic conferences, scholars can get faster responses and comments. As the relevant documents have been distributed in advance, participants can have enough time to read the documents and prepare some sharp questions.
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Conflict target
In academia, different groups have different and even conflicting goals. These conflicts are very common in contemporary universities.
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Practical and theoretical
Academic circles are often vilified by "practice", such as in daily life, employment and business. Critics in academic circles say that academic theory is divorced from the real world, so there is no need to consider the real role, results and risks of actions. This kind of insulation is called' ivory tower'. This often leads to the tension between academics and practice in many fields of knowledge, especially when academics have a very important influence on the practice. Sometimes, the criticism of the academic school by the practical school is considered as anti-intellectualism. From a balanced point of view, even if the academic world is isolated from the real world, it does not mean that academic research is worthless. In fact, many academic developments eventually turned into fruitful application results. However, if scholars consider academic narrowness, it may increase the value and influence of their research.
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The town where the school is located and the teachers and students at school
Universities are usually located in the suburbs of towns. In some cases, this has caused local residents and university members to feel uneasy in political, economic and other fields. Some residents in the northeastern United States try to prevent students from registering as local residents, instead of encouraging them to vote in absentia at their parents' homes, just to retain control over local politics. This conflict was brought to the screen by the movie "Surviving from Danger".
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Enterprise and scholar funding
The research purpose of commercial aid is often more important than the pursuit of profit. This is a bit in conflict with the pursuit of knowledge.
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history
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ancient times
Major projects: College
The academic circle was named "Academy" because it was a refuge outside the walls of ancient Athens. Named after the legendary hero Akkadmos, it has several olive groves, gyms and places suitable for intimate gatherings. In these gardens, there are many plants and statues of former gardeners, where Plato speaks loudly and inspires his followers. These informal gatherings are called colleges. Later, Plato developed his party into a philosophical educational method. In 387 BC, he established the "Old College".
Plato's colleagues and students established his deduction method. Axilaus, a Greek student of Plato, founded the medieval college. Another student, Kanye Ades, established a "new college". In 335 BC, Aristotle improved the method and established academies in other gymnasiums with his own theory.
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Early development
Main projects: medieval universities
As a modern institution, academia began to develop in the Middle Ages (350-1450). At this time, the Roman Empire collapsed and the new regime began to control Western Europe. Since the dark ages, Europe is still in a period of illiteracy and information loss. The only treasure house of ancient knowledge is the Catholic monastery, where hermits, monks and priests wrote all the knowledge in the world and copied books meticulously. These ancient knowledge were preserved and survived in the dark ages.
No one can understand ancient Greece and Rome and the knowledge handed down, unless he goes to a monastery. Education in monasteries is limited to those who want to become monks and priests. However, in the 1 1 century, some Roman Catholic church leaders began to reform and increased their understanding of early European society. They believe in Plato, Aristotle, Euclid, Homer, Sophocles and other people who belong to the people, not just to religion. Monks and priests left the monastery and began to enter the city cathedral to open the first school dedicated to advanced research.
These most famous schools are in Bronn, Paris, Oxford and Cambridge, although other schools are all over Europe. Studying in these schools now called universities means a collection of educational methods called speeches. In the speech, the master read aloud the manuscripts written by monks and priests, while the students sat in their seats and read their manuscripts. Only the master can determine whether the students have reached the level of knowledge and prepare their own speeches. /kloc-Before 0/4th century, there were more than 80 universities in Europe.
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Early method
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Boya art
The seven achievements of liberal arts were compiled into later textbooks by Varo and martianus capella, and provided a standardized structure through some people who have the ability to visually learn the world. At that time, the seven liberal arts were also called three studies and four subjects. Three subjects include grammar, rhetoric and logic, and four subjects include arithmetic, geometry, music and astronomy. Philosophy and theology are all-encompassing knowledge, but philosophy in the early Middle Ages was mainly dialectical.
According to Christian articles and understanding, the concept plan established by martianus capella had a far-reaching influence on western academic circles, especially after the new scholasticism of chartres School and Thomas Aquinas' extensive work, and humanism made new research in art and science from 15 to 16 century.
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Encyclopedia editor
Three medieval writers tried to include the whole academic world and societies all over the world, including Saint isidore of Seville, Bernard de Clairvaux of Graves and Thomas Aquinas.
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Peter Jabra
/kloc-in the 20th century, the French philosopher Peter Jabra started his own revolution in academic circles through his book "Things and Rights" in 1 123. Instead of reading the article according to the method taught by the master, he asked the students to sit in front of two mutually exclusive articles. Without explaining right or wrong first, he asked the students to ask each other questions and draw their own conclusions. Soon, all universities began to experiment with this "Jabra method".
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follow conventionality
/kloc-at the beginning of the third century, St. Thomas Aquinas popularized his scholasticism and launched an academic revolution. Scholasticism applied Jabra's educational method, but it was further extended. The master asked students to participate in long-term decisions made by testing two mutually exclusive articles and to consider religious beliefs rationally. These resolutions are based on Aristotle's newly discovered philosophy, that is, to find a balance between reason and religious belief.
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The rise of society
Major projects: a learned society.
An academic society or a learned society begins with a group of scholars working together or showing their masterpieces to each other. These informal groups later became organizations and were approved by the state in many cases. Membership is limited to the approval of current members, and the total number of members is usually limited to a certain number. The Royal Society, founded in 1660, is such a college. The American College of Arts and Sciences was founded in 1780 by many people as famous as the American Revolution. Society is a forum for publishing and publishing academic works, and this role is now played by academic publishing. Academic groups also sponsor research and support scholars. In modern academic circles, joining academic societies is still a prestigious thing.
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18,19th century
In colonial America in the18th century, academic circles began to split from Christianity. 1753, Ben Ming Jie Franklin founded the Pennsylvania Academic and Charity School. 1755, renamed as Academic and Charity School of Philadelphia College. [1] This is the University of Pennsylvania today. This is the first time that academic circles have established secular institutions. The dogmatic views of most churches no longer affect the evaluation of their academic achievements. Because students are free to explore the ideological field without imposing a religious angle, their views are becoming more and more diverse.
18 19, Thomas Jefferson founded the University of Virginia. [2] The standards of organizational institutions he established are still in use today and have been adopted by all countries in the world. This course is based on the values of traditional humanities, classical humanism and Protestant reform. Jefferson allowed students to talk freely about their courses, instead of restricting all students to talk about the same fixed course. Religious colleges and universities are gradually following suit.
For the public, the academic movement appeared in the United States at the beginning of the19th century, and the education of classic subjects needs to be extended to new places, such as the old northwest, new york, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, Indiana and Illinois. Many colleges are established and supported by private donations.
/kloc-during the enlightenment in Europe in the 0/8th century, European colleges began to change. /kloc-At the beginning of the 9th century, william von humboldt not only published the philosophical work The Limits of State Action, but also guided the education system in Prussia. The education system he introduced made it easier for the lower classes to enter. Humboldt's philosophy is that education is based on independence, creativity, integrity and universality. Many universities in continental Europe are rooted in these ideas. However, this is contrary to the current general trend of academic specialization.
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The recent economic transformation
In the 1980s and 1990s, great changes have taken place in the economy of academic ecology, which makes people feel the arrival of catastrophe, but some people think that it is the arrival of a new generation, and universities are full of development space. Some critics think this is the corporatization of universities. Although their wages are very low and they need more extensive education than other industries, academic employment has always been the desire of intellectuals because they have autonomy and academic freedom.
Although college tuition and income and expenditure are increasing, especially in the United States, there are fewer and fewer high-income professional posts, which are replaced by low-income jobs and graduate workers. Doctors of science often look for jobs outside academia, but humanities and many social sciences urge graduates to choose academic careers first. PhDs in humanities must choose between low-income jobs and non-academic job markets. Because their education has no market value.
In fact, the number of doctors exceeds the number of professors or equivalent positions, which leads to some problems and makes people wonder whether they have made special arrangements in academia. Sociologist Stanley Aronowitz once wrote: "When there are a large number of lecturers with good quality and reputation, university administrators see that teaching and research positions can only be awarded to those who have great service needs or are loyal to services" (Knowledge Factory 76).
Many people who know the academic job market advise graduates not to enter the graduation school if they need to pay. They believe that when they are admitted without tuition fee remission or reasonable graduate salary, they will be forced to bear huge debts and are unlikely to have a quick return.
Some people think that the academic job market will rebound after a large number of baby boomers retire. Some people think that it will not lead to a substantial increase in teaching and research posts, especially when universities fill them with low-paid additional posts. Arnold Weiss blamed this problem on the changes in the overall economic structure of the academic community.
In western economies, the number of unemployed, underemployed and dissatisfied doctors is increasing, and its impact is difficult to estimate.
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Academic publishing
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History of academic journals
The earliest research journal is1the follow-up to the meeting of the Royal Society in the 7th century. At that time, publishing queries were controversial and often laughed at. This is not an unusual way, for example, to publish a new discovery by publishing a variant, and to reserve priority for its discoverer. Isaac? Newton and Leibniz both used this method. But this method is not effective. As a sociologist, Robert Morton found that 92% of cases in17th century ended in disputes. In the18th century, the number of disputes dropped to 72%, in the second half of the19th century to 59%, and in the first half of the 20th century to 33%. In the early research, it was found that the decline in competition was attributed to the increase in the acceptance of publications by modern academic journals.
The Royal Society firmly believes that science can make steady progress through transparent and open exchange of ideas and supported by experimental evidence. At that time, many experiments seemed unscientific today, and even answered irrelevant questions.
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Present situation and development
The research on periodicals and periodicals is very successful. In the past few years, the number of periodicals and papers has surged a lot, and modern colleges all take "publish or destroy" as their creed. Except for ordinary journals such as science magazines or nature magazines, other academic journals have only narrow topics, and their readers and citations are declining. There are different ways to review submissions. The most common way is to pass the examination and approval of journals first, and then two or three researchers with similar research put forward approval or disapproval, asking for revision, clarification and supplement before publication. Controversial topics need to be examined at multiple levels. Journals have developed a category, some of which are based on reputation, and their evaluation policies are very strict. More prestigious academic journals will accept and publish more important works. Contributors try to contribute to these prestigious journals in order to improve their status and resume.
Andrew Odko, as a scholar who has published a large number of research papers, believes that research journals have been increasing the interactivity of the Internet in the past decade and will eventually evolve into an Internet forum. This will expose them to a wider range of views and ideas. This may be a positive evolution, but some people think that it is difficult to attract intellectuals by making periodicals more like expositions. Some people even think that highly regulated forums are difficult to flourish.
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cap and gown
From 1300 to 1400, jackets are often associated with academic circles during the birth of universities. This may be because early scholars were priests and church workers. Even though the jackets worn by bachelors are later derived from different colors, to some extent, wearing jackets after graduation has become a tradition.
For example, Oxford University and Cambridge University, college students will wear them on important occasions or graduation ceremonies. College jackets are often short versions of bachelor jackets. Other British and American universities no longer have this tradition.
Singles in Britain and America wear simple full-length robes without any decoration, square hats and tassels. In addition, in some schools, bachelors may be eligible to wear formal dresses. In America, bachelor's convertibles are rare. The convertible of a bachelor's degree is usually black, but it may be lined with silk to show what degree it belongs to.
In the United States or Britain, the host will wear a similar hat and sleeveless jacket with a ceremonial convertible hanging on the back of the jacket. Traditionally, the convertible is gradually made of silk or velvet strips, with academic and university colors.
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see
academic freedom
professor
Academic management
Academic publishing
On the Rules of Academic Outstanding Persons
Anti-intellectualism
graduated school
Topic list
Peer review
Scientific method
Scholar method
education
university
science
knowledge
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reference book
Stanley Arenwitz. Dismantle enterprise universities and create real higher education. ISBN 080703 1232。
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external links
Bibliography of University History [3] is provided by Palinurus: Colleges and Institutions, and comes from the website of University of California, Santa Barbara.
Academic guide to makeup etiquette and ceremony
Excerpted from http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5% AD% A6% E6% 9c% AF.
Category: academic