The first industrial revolution/kloc-the technological revolution initiated by Britain in the 8th century was a great revolution in the history of technological development, which initiated the era when machines replaced hand tools. This revolution began with the birth of working machines, marked by the widespread use of steam engines as power machines. This technological revolution and related changes in social relations are called the first industrial revolution or industrial revolution. In terms of production technology, the industrial revolution replaced manual workshops with factory system and manual labor with machines; In social relations, the industrial revolution made the yeoman peasant class attached to the backward mode of production disappear, and the industrial bourgeoisie and the industrial proletariat formed and developed.
Britain is the birthplace of the industrial revolution. The British Industrial Revolution began in the 1960s of 18 and was basically completed in the 40s of 19. It is no accident that the industrial revolution began in Britain, which has profound political, socio-economic and scientific and technological preconditions. /kloc-The British bourgeois revolution in the middle of the 0/7th century overthrew the feudal autocracy in Britain and established a constitutional monarchy based on the alliance between the bourgeoisie and the land aristocracy, thus becoming the first country in the world to establish bourgeois political rule. The bourgeoisie used state power to accelerate the implementation of policies and measures to develop capitalism, which promoted the rapid formation of various preconditions for the industrial revolution.
The bourgeoisie accumulated huge wealth through large-scale foreign plunder and the national debt system and consumption tax policy implemented at home, which provided the necessary monetary funds for the industrial revolution; The large-scale enclosure movement provided a large number of "free" labor and a broad domestic market for the industrial revolution.
The high development of British workshop handicraft industry has trained a large number of skilled workers with rich practical experience, creating conditions for the invention and application of machines; The development and achievements of natural science, especially Newton's mechanics and mathematics, laid a scientific theoretical foundation for the emergence of machines.
Although other European countries also have excellent and capable workers and innovative talents, they lack the capital, labor and market needed to develop the machinery industry, and also lack the political and cultural conditions to ensure the development of capitalist economy.
1789, the French revolution broke out, abolishing the privileges of the feudal ruling class and clearing the way for capitalist industrialization. After Napoleon came to power, he attached great importance to the development of science and technology and created conditions for the industrial revolution in France. Since then, Germany, the United States, Japan and other countries have also joined the ranks of the industrial revolution. By the end of 19, these countries had completed the industrial revolution.
the second industrial revolution
the second industrial revolution
1870 after the second industrial revolution, science and technology developed by leaps and bounds, and various new technologies and inventions emerged one after another, which were quickly applied to industrial production, greatly promoting economic development. This is the second industrial revolution. At that time, the outstanding development of science and technology was mainly manifested in three aspects, namely, the wide application of electric power, the creation of internal combustion engines and new means of transportation, and the invention of new means of communication.
The second industrial revolution was marked by the widespread use of electricity. From 65438 to the sixties and seventies, a series of electrical inventions appeared. Siemens in Germany made a generator, and Gram in Belgium invented an electric motor. Electricity began to be used to drive machines and became a new energy source to supplement and replace steam power. The electric power industry and electrical appliance manufacturing industry have developed rapidly. Mankind has entered the electrical age.
/kloc-In the early 9th century, electromagnetic induction was discovered. According to this phenomenon, electricity is deeply studied. While further improving the electrical theory, scientists began to develop generators. 1866, German scientist Siemens made a generator, which was improved several times and gradually improved. In the 1970s, practical generators came out. The invention of the electric motor realized the exchange of electric energy and mechanical energy. Subsequently, electric lamps, trams, electric drills, electric welding machines and other electrical products have mushroomed.
Another great achievement of the second industrial revolution was the invention and use of the internal combustion engine. From 65438 to 1970s and 1980s, internal combustion engines fueled by gas and gasoline were born one after another, and diesel engines were built successfully in 1990s. The invention of the internal combustion engine solved the engine problem of the vehicle. 1885, German karl benz successfully manufactured the first car driven by an internal combustion engine. Diesel locomotives, ocean-going ships and airplanes have also developed rapidly. The invention of internal combustion engine also promoted the development of oil exploitation and the emergence of petrochemical industry.
Early car
At the beginning of the 20th century, planes driven by internal combustion engines flew into the blue sky, realizing the dream of human beings soaring in the sky. With the extensive use of internal combustion engines, the production and refining technology of petroleum has also been greatly improved. 1870, the world oil output was only about 800,000 tons, and by 1900, it had soared to 20 million tons.
Early aircraft
During the second industrial revolution, telecommunications developed particularly rapidly. After the appearance of wired telegraph, telephone and wireless telegraph came out one after another, which provided convenience for the rapid transmission of information. Since then, economic, political and cultural ties around the world have been further strengthened.
Compared with the first industrial revolution, the second industrial revolution has the following three characteristics:
First of all, during the first industrial revolution, many technological inventions came from the practical experience of craftsmen, and science and technology were not really combined; During the second industrial revolution, the new development of natural science began to be closely combined with industrial production, which played a more important role in promoting the development of productive forces scientifically. Its combination with technology has made great achievements in the second industrial revolution.
Secondly, the first industrial revolution first occurred in Britain, and important new machines and new modes of production were mainly invented in Britain, while the industrial revolution in other countries developed relatively slowly; The second industrial revolution happened in several advanced capitalist countries almost at the same time, and new technologies and inventions were beyond the scope of a country, with a larger scale and rapid development.
Third, at the beginning of the second industrial revolution, some major capitalist countries such as Japan had not completed the first industrial revolution. For them, the two industrial revolutions crossed. They can not only absorb the technological achievements of the first industrial revolution, but also directly use the new technologies of the second industrial revolution. The economic development of these countries is also relatively fast.
The influence of the second industrial revolution can be described in four aspects:
First of all, the large-scale application of new energy sources such as electricity and coal has directly promoted the great strides of heavy industry, enabling large factories to obtain sustained and effective power supply conveniently and cheaply, thus making large-scale industrial production possible and laying the foundation for subsequent economic monopoly.
Secondly, the invention of the internal combustion engine solved the problem of insufficient power that has long plagued mankind. The invention of the internal combustion engine promoted the emergence of the engine, which solved the problem of transportation, promoted the rapid development of automobiles, ocean-going ships and airplanes, made human footprints spread all over the world, and facilitated cultural and trade exchanges in various regions.
Third, the invention of communication tools. Since Bell invented the telephone in the 1970s, the communication between people is not limited to face-to-face conversation.
Finally, the rapid development of chemical industry. The invention of explosives greatly promoted the progress of military industry and eventually led to the outbreak of World War I.. Various compounds extracted from coal, plastics and man-made fibers have been put into practical life.
The above four great inventions played a decisive role in the second industrial revolution. Humans began to acquire pure knowledge through scientific research, and then in turn promoted the application of theory.
The third scientific and technological revolution, the third scientific and technological revolution
A summary of the research on the history of the third scientific and technological revolution
The third scientific and technological revolution is another great leap in the field of science and technology after the steam technology revolution and the electric power technology revolution in the history of human civilization. It is marked by the wide application of atomic energy, computer and space technology, and involves an information control technology revolution in many fields such as information technology, new energy technology, new material technology, biotechnology, space technology and marine technology. This scientific and technological revolution has not only greatly promoted the changes in the economic, political and cultural fields of human society, but also affected the way of life and thinking of human beings, making human social life and human modernization develop to a higher level. It is in this sense that the third scientific and technological revolution is the largest and most far-reaching scientific and technological revolution in human history so far, and it is an important event that cannot be ignored in the history of human civilization. Since 1980s, domestic historians have been deeply studying the history of the third scientific and technological revolution, and relevant research results have been published continuously. This paper intends to make a summary of these research results in order to make readers understand the third scientific and technological revolution more comprehensively.
1. Why did the third scientific and technological revolution originate in America?
Scholars have different opinions on why the third scientific and technological revolution originated in the United States.
Peng Xiancheng believes that the reason why the third scientific and technological revolution first arose in the United States is not an accidental phenomenon, but has its objective inevitability. This is mainly manifested in two aspects: first, because the United States has a solid material foundation, many outstanding scientific and technological talents, vigorous national innovation spirit, superior geographical environment and huge market capacity in the early postwar period, it has created preconditions and possibilities for the third scientific and technological revolution to take the lead in the United States; Second, since the war, the American government has attached great importance to science and technology and actively taken measures to promote the development of science and technology, which directly contributed to the rise of the third scientific and technological revolution in the United States. 〔 1〕
Liu Zhong believes that the third scientific and technological revolution originated in the United States because the United States has the following conditions: technical conditions-in terms of thinking technology, American pragmatism philosophy began to take shape; The characteristics of experimental technology are the combination of military and civilian, science and engineering; Power technology and aviation technology are leading the production. Material conditions-The United States has superior natural and human resources and a vast domestic market, which is conducive to mass production. Institutional conditions-The United States is the first bourgeois democratic constitutional country. Cultural conditions-Americans come from all over the world and integrate the cultural traditions of all ethnic groups; Around World War II, a group of outstanding European scientists such as Einstein and von Neumann poured in. Various societies and organizations have been established, and the scientific research system is diversified. 〔2〕
Peng Shuzhi believes that it is no accident that the third scientific and technological revolution originated in the United States from the historical exchange of war forms. World War II was carried out under the condition of universal and full development of world communication, and the result of competing for scientific and technological talents was closely linked with the third scientific and technological revolution. In World War II, the United States used the form of war communication to win the most scientific and technological talents and promote the cultivation of domestic talents, so it benefited the most. 〔3〕
Second, the beginning and ending time and characteristics of the third scientific and technological revolution
1. Start and end times
Scholars generally hold two views on the starting and ending time of the third scientific and technological revolution. One view is that the third scientific and technological revolution began in the early postwar period, reached its climax in the mid-1950s and early 1970s, and entered a new stage after 1970s. [4] Another view is that the third scientific and technological revolution took place in the 1940s and 1960s, and the scientific and technological revolution after the 1970s was the fourth (or "new scientific and technological revolution"), and the two cannot be confused. 〔5〕
2. The characteristics of the third scientific and technological revolution
Scholars have different opinions about the characteristics of the third scientific and technological revolution.
Hu believes that compared with the second scientific and technological revolution, the third scientific and technological revolution presents many distinctive features: first, the development speed of science and technology itself is getting faster and faster, and the structure of scientific and technological products is becoming more and more complex and precise; Second, the commercialization cycle of scientific and technological achievements is getting shorter and shorter, and the speed of transforming science and technology into productivity is getting faster and faster; Third, the content of this scientific and technological revolution is extremely rich and closely related, forming a group form; Fourth, the trend of socialization of science and technology has been greatly enhanced; Fifth, the new scientific and technological capabilities formed by the third scientific and technological revolution have had an unprecedented huge and profound impact on human society. 〔6〕
Zhang Xiang believes that the third scientific and technological revolution has three outstanding characteristics: technological collectivization, scientific and technological socialization and rapid development process. 〔7〕
Bian Chunyuan believes that compared with the previous technological revolution, the third technological revolution has the following characteristics: science and technology, science and technology collectivization, science and technology intelligence, science and technology industrialization. 〔8〕
Liu and Ma Shuchun believe that the modern scientific and technological revolution has two outstanding features: First, scientific progress is closely integrated with technological development; Second, the combination of science and technology can industrialize production, thus transforming productivity and making fundamental changes in productivity. 〔9〕
Yu Dehui and Zhao Yiming believe that "the army leads the people", that is, military technology takes the lead in breaking through and then drives civilian technology, which is an important feature of the third scientific and technological revolution. 〔 10〕
Third, the relationship between World War II and the third scientific and technological revolution.
Scholars have discussed the relationship between World War II and the third scientific and technological revolution from different angles.
Yu Dehui and Zhao Yiming believed that although many disciplines and technical rudiments of the third scientific and technological revolution were conceived in peacetime before the war, they would never come to the earth in a hurry without the promotion of war and military needs. It was World War II that gave birth to this scientific and technological revolution. [1 1] Chen Benhong also holds this view, and believes that World War II greatly promoted and promoted the rise of the third scientific and technological revolution. 〔 12〕
Based on the two-way logical relationship between science and technology and World War II, Zhong Lunrong pointed out that science and technology was one of the subjective motives that triggered the Second World War and a balanced force that determined the evolution of the war. World War II made many science and technology applied to military forms and became tools of war. At the same time, it gave birth to a series of most far-reaching science and technology, started the third scientific and technological revolution and became the midwife of the third scientific and technological revolution. 〔 13〕
Peng Shuzhi used the historical philosophy concept of "historical communication" to explain the relationship between World War II and the third scientific and technological revolution. He believes that one of the most prominent significance of the Second World War is that it promoted the third scientific and technological revolution, which began in the late 1940s and lasted until the second half of the 20th century. The historical exchange in the Second World War undoubtedly played a key role in the development of this revolution. 〔 14〕
Fourth, clarify several concepts.
Scholars have discussed many different and related concepts such as scientific revolution, technological revolution, industrial revolution and so on, and there are great differences.
Zhang Xiang believes that the scientific and technological revolution includes three processes: scientific revolution, technological revolution and industrial revolution, which are both related and different. Since modern times, especially since the 20th century, they have been gradually linked, appeared in turn and staggered. Scientific revolution is the theoretical basis of technological revolution, and the leap produced by human beings in the process of understanding nature and its development law is called scientific revolution; Technological revolution is a social and fundamental change of systematic knowledge about production and operation in the process of human transforming nature. The industrial revolution is caused by the technological revolution, which means that the actual industrial structure of the national economy has undergone fundamental changes and the economic and social outlook has taken on a new look. 〔 15〕
Sun Xian, Liu Xun and others believe that the scientific revolution generally refers to a major leap in human understanding of the objective world, which is often manifested in the form of a breakthrough in scientific theory; The technological revolution is a major change in the means by which human beings transform the objective world. It is often based on the scientific revolution and often serves as the forerunner of the industrial revolution or industrial revolution. The industrial revolution only refers to the leap of human beings in the field of production in industrialized society; The industrial revolution refers to the great changes caused by the leap of science and technology in the whole economic and social fields. The fundamental difference between industrial revolution and industrial revolution lies in that the former reflects the progress in the production field of industrial society, while the latter reflects the changes in the dominant industrial form of any society. 〔 16〕
Scientific revolution, technological revolution and industrial revolution cannot be confused. Scientific revolution usually refers to a leap in human understanding of nature and a major change in the social organization form of scientific research; Technological revolution refers to the major changes in production tools and technological processes, while industrial revolution has both the nature and content of science and technology and the nature and content of economy and society. Therefore, the scientific and technological revolution will only promote the industrial revolution if certain economic and social conditions are met, and not every scientific and technological revolution can lead to the industrial revolution. 〔 17〕
Verb (abbreviation of verb) the influence of the third scientific and technological revolution
Scholars have discussed the influence of the third scientific and technological revolution from many aspects. Due to different perspectives, they draw different conclusions, which are summarized as follows:
1. Impact on economic development: The impact of the third scientific and technological revolution on economic development is shown in the following aspects; First, it has caused changes in various elements of productivity and significantly improved labor productivity; Second, great changes have taken place in the whole economic structure. The third scientific and technological revolution not only strengthened the dematerialization of industrial structure and the intelligent trend of production process, but also caused changes in the economic layout of various countries and the world economic structure. In addition, the third scientific and technological revolution developed management into a real science with its rich contents and realized modernization. 〔 18〕
2. Impact on social life and people's modernization: The third scientific and technological revolution not only brought about the modernization of things, but also caused changes in working methods and lifestyles, and also created a new generation to adapt to it, gradually modernizing people's concepts, ways of thinking, behaviors and lifestyles. 〔 19〕
3. Impact on human society: The invention and wide application of electronic computers and the formation of various "man-machine control systems" in the third scientific and technological revolution made it possible to realize the automation of production, office and family life (the so-called "three A" revolution). It marks that human society will enter another more advanced automation era from the era of mechanization and electrification; The development of space technology and marine technology marks that human society has entered a new three-dimensional era with far-reaching influence from the era of "earth residents" bound to the earth's surface; The progress of gene recombination technology, structural chemistry and molecular engineering has enabled human beings to actively create new organisms and new life, which indicates that human beings are gradually moving from the "inevitable kingdom" to the "free kingdom". 〔20〕
4. Impact on capitalism: The third scientific and technological revolution promoted the transformation of capitalism from general monopoly to state monopoly. Because the third scientific and technological revolution has greatly promoted the development of social productive forces and the socialization of production has been continuously improved, the original private monopoly can no longer meet the needs of the rapid development of productive forces, so it is urgent to fully develop the state monopoly and fully intervene in the economy.
5. Impact on the world economy: The third scientific and technological revolution improved the level of world productivity and accelerated the recovery and development of the world economy after the war; It promotes the development of international trade, the change of world monetary and financial relations and the international flow of production factors; It has promoted the development of multinational corporations and international economic integration, and caused changes in the world economic structure and economic strategy. 〔22〕
6. Impact on international relations: The third scientific and technological revolution had a far-reaching impact on international relations. On the one hand, it has aggravated the imbalance in the development of capitalist countries and changed their international status; On the other hand, it gives a strong impetus to the struggle between socialist countries and western capitalist countries. At the same time, the third scientific and technological revolution has widened the gap between the rich and the poor in the world and promoted the transformation of production relations in the world society. 〔23〕
7. Impact on global issues: On the one hand, the development of scientific and technological revolution has expanded the field of human activities to transform nature and improved the ability of human beings to struggle with nature, thus pushing the material civilization and spiritual civilization of human society to a new height unimaginable by predecessors; On the other hand, it also brings a series of thorny social problems, such as the deterioration of ecological environment, excessive consumption of natural resources and energy, and the threat of nuclear disaster. The uncontrollable vicious development of these problems has made the human situation more and more seriously troubled and become a global issue of concern to the whole world. 〔24〕
In addition, some scholars believe that the third scientific and technological revolution with outstanding achievements not only pushed the development of modern science and technology to a new stage, but also enabled a number of developed countries in the West to achieve high industrialization in the 1950s and 1960s, and completed the last course of industrial society.