Since then, this form of activity has developed for a long time in ancient times, and its content has become more colorful. Many projects have been formed, and its formation has laid the foundation for modern sports.
In the whole field of modern sports, competition has gained more and more independence and was named "competitive sports".
At present, with the continuous development and evolution, competitive sports not only mature in theoretical principles and practical methods, but also expand its influence and become a special social phenomenon all over the world in all walks of life and five continents.
People often say that competitive sports is an art, because it can transcend the barriers of language and other social factors, rely on mass media, and can be directly accepted by people without other forms of inscriptions and additional conditions (such as translation).
Art is the concentrated expression of the materialization of aesthetic consciousness, which can strongly arouse people's aesthetic feeling.
Competitive sports has various effective rules to prevent unfairness, which is an artistic creation and gives people a fierce, wonderful, harmonious and beautiful feeling.
From the middle of 4000 BC to the end of 2000 BC, the Nile valley in northeast Africa, the two rivers valley in west Asia, the Indus valley in south Africa and the Yellow River valley in east Asia all entered the threshold of civilization.
In the 8th-6th century BC, some city-states were also established in the Greek Peninsula in southern Europe.
Since then, other parts of the world have successively entered the class society.
Slavery society and feudal society are the first two stages that all civilized regions have generally experienced.
Under the new historical conditions of these two stages, although most social members completely (as far as slavery society is concerned) or partially (as far as feudal society is concerned) lost the right to participate in sports, and even a certain part of the world experienced great twists and turns in a certain historical stage (as far as medieval Europe is concerned), on the whole, great progress has been made in all aspects.
Due to the improvement of material and cultural living standards, competitive sports in civilized times no longer take survival as the most important goal, and begin to have a new independent value orientation.
Entertainment plays an increasingly important role in competitive sports.
The race in the New Year celebration in Sumer, West Asia.
The running and fighting between the two teams with real swords and guns has the function of embellishing the festive atmosphere.
In Greece in southern Europe, especially in the late Rome, ornamental sports competitions were also held for the purpose of eliminating heritage.
It was for entertainment that the emperors of China in the Tang and Song Dynasties were fascinated by polo and football (called "Cuju" in ancient China), so that they wrote poems with admiration.
The desire for self-expression has appeared in competitive sports and is constantly strengthening.
The emotional change of offering sacrifices to gods in ancient Olympic Games is a prominent example.
In the initial competitive competition in Sri Lanka (at that time, it was still the era of military democracy), God occupied a very high position in people's minds, and the winner also dedicated his honor to God.
However, after entering the civilized era, the influence of God gradually weakened, and people were more proud of their talents displayed in the sports meeting. In the later Roman Empire, this desire to show oneself was even stronger.
Some Roman freemen acted as "volunteer gladiators" in order to gain social reputation, even regardless of casualties.
In the polo field in Central Asia, kings also tried their best to show their superb skills in order to win the admiration of their subjects.
It is also common to take part in competitive sports in order to keep fit.
The pentathlon in ancient Greece not only has obvious military value, but also is a comprehensive sports means to promote the all-round and coordinated development of human body. Clark, Miao Wen and ibn sina, famous doctors in ancient India, especially warned people that in addition to participating in general sports activities, they should also regularly carry out competitive sports, because competitive sports are also beneficial to health.
The aesthetic concept of competitive sports has also begun to take shape.
In early civilized works, the beauty of human body has always been one of the themes praised by * *.
In ancient Greece, the pursuit of sports beauty was the most prominent: people regarded the strong Olympic champion as a handsome man (such as Philip of Closso city-state) and respected him very much. After his death, erect a statue to commemorate him and respect him as a god; Pythagoras, a Greek scholar, has long devoted himself to the study of human symmetry, measuring its quantity and calculating its number; In the Athena Games, a large-scale sports meeting in the Athens city-state, in addition to general sports competitions, there are also competitions. The Greeks formulated the standard of "Kalogadiya" for bodybuilding (the root of "Kalogadiya" means "Carlos") and achieved this standard through systematic physical exercise.
With the shift of value orientation, the secularity of competitive sports is also increasing, and its religious significance is gradually weakening; Coupled with the development of religion itself in civilized times, rituals tend to be simplified (such as prayer), and it is no longer necessary to use competitive sports to communicate with God, so the components of competitive sports in religious activities are gradually decreasing.
In addition, because the class society and religious asceticism are already very strong, the fanatical secular competitive sports are incompatible with the religious concept of abandoning the world and refusing to desire, so in some areas of the world where religious forces are rampant and doctrines are strictly hierarchical, competitive sports are banned as heretical acts that violate religious teachings.
Because of this, the ancient Olympic Games offering sacrifices to God were finally banned by the Roman Empire with Christianity, and in the following 1000 years, European competitive sports were suppressed for a long time because they opposed religious teachings.
On the whole, competitive sports in the new period are banned because of its reduced content in religious activities and its conflict with religion, and are divorced from religion to some extent. That is to say, it no longer exists as a tool of religious activities, but begins to have certain independence, although in some cases, it has to rely on religion in some countries and regions (especially those countries and regions where religious activities are prevalent and competitive activities are more tolerant, such as India).
In the new era when competitive sports and religious activities are separated to some extent, the functions of competitive sports are likely to be expanded because of the richer social and cultural life.
It is under this condition that competitive sports, as the main means to form labor and combat skills in prehistoric times, began to gradually surpass the utilitarian principles of labor education and military training and appeared in social and cultural activities.
For example, in prehistoric times, wrestling, archery, javelin, sword fighting and running were mainly used to form hunting and combat skills. In the civilized era, they not only retain the traditional practical value, but also become an organic part of social entertainment activities and festivals.
The change of the relationship between competitive sports and religious, military and production activities has led to a positive result: competitive sports have continuously excluded the influence of intertwined and mixed factors in other fields and become a more independent social phenomenon than in prehistoric times.
In the process of increasing the independence of competitive sports, not only specialized venues and equipment have emerged, but also independent management organizations have been formed, and sports events and training methods and principles have also developed rapidly.
In an era when there is no obvious sign of separation between competitive sports and religion, special competition and training venues have emerged.
In the later period of the ancient Greek God Sacrifice Competition, there was a U-shaped stadium dedicated to the competition.
In the U-shaped arena built in Olympia, there is also a runway with a length of 192.25m (plus the buffer section after the finish line, the length of * * * is 2 12m), which is about 32m wide and can be used by 32 players at the same time.
The starting line and sideline of the runway are made of stone.
The kerb is carved with a stone trough, and the clear water in the trough can be used for the contestants to drink.
The long jump bunker also appeared, which the ancient Greeks called "Scar Style".
This is a kind of loose soil pit dug with pickaxe or pickaxe.
The pit is about15m long, and the surface of the pit is leveled with a wooden ruler, so that the long jumpers can leave their footprints clearly.
At that time, the long jump bunker was used as a wrestling field.
Discus is called "Balbis", and it is not allowed to cross the front and left and right limit lines when throwing.
The car also has a special field, and the last line of the track is equipped with a steering column, and the car can run around the steering column several times.
At that time, many Greek city-states that held large-scale sacrifices to gods built arenas, many of which were square, and there were mounds around or on both sides of the arena for the stands to use.
The Colosseum built in Athens in 330 BC has a weak connection with religion.
The stadium was expanded in BC 143 and became a large-scale sports facility with a capacity of 50,000 spectators.
Since the late period of the * * * system, Rome's competitive sports have become a tool to carry out political factional struggles and ease domestic class contradictions, so they have received special attention, and the construction of its special venues has surpassed other regions in terms of scale and technical level.
The most representative venue in Rome is the Colosseum, which mainly uses racing cars. They generally consist of long and narrow fields and horseshoe-shaped stands.
At that time, the most famous arenas were Maxim Arena (expanded into a large facility with a capacity of 200,000 spectators in Augustine's time), Flamini Arena, Caius Rooney Arena and Marcuse Arena.
The world-famous arena covers 6 acres and has 80,000 seats. It's oval. The basement of the building is the gladiator room, tool storage room, corral and arena, with complete water supply and drainage facilities. It can be filled with water in a short time to perform a simulated naval battle performance.
Dedicated arenas are also common in eastern countries.
Many cities in ancient India built wrestling and boxing fields beside the city gates. Among them, some domestic polo fields are equipped with temples, pavilions, pavilions, platforms and other ornamental facilities, which can stop dust by pouring oil on site, which is unique.
Football (cuju) in China is in the forefront of the world, and the goal was first used.
At the same time, sports training venues have also appeared.
There were two kinds of sports driving ranges in ancient Greece: wrestling field and gymnasium.
The former is similar to today's quadrangle buildings and is privately owned; The main part of the latter is an open-air square with a runway, which is managed by the state.
Both are equipped with dressing rooms, bathrooms and other facilities.
In addition, the so-called gymnastics school is also an institution dedicated to training.
The gladiator training center and bathing place in Rome are also special training places.
The former is used for gladiator training and built into the Four Life Courtyard, which is surrounded by gladiator room and equipment room, and the open space in the courtyard is used by coaches. The latter was the place where the Roman Empire trained freemen.
Here, people can practice weightlifting, ball games, gymnastics and track and field besides bathing and reading books.
In eastern India, most Buddhist schools have gyms attached to them, and some famous wrestlers have been trained here.
Persians also have "teaching halls" for training children aged 7~ 16 to wrestle, run and ride horses.
After competitive sports gained relative independence, combat weapons, sacrificial ceremonies and production tools also evolved into specialized sports equipment.
The discus and javelin used in Greek sports are improved from the slings and javelin used in the battlefield; The ball as a symbol of disaster in Europe and the ball as an auxiliary tool in military training in China have all become special equipment for the game after the formation of football.
The national dragon boat race is improved from production or life boats.
In addition, designing and creating according to the characteristics of new and old projects is also an important source of special sports equipment.
The boxing used in ancient Greece bound pimps (the Romans later viciously developed it, fixing nails and lead bars on hard pimps to strengthen the impact), the dumbbells for long jump, the starting device on the track and the goal of ancient China Cuju were all designed according to the needs of the game itself.
In Britain, where modern competitive sports first emerged, the venues used for competitions in 17 and 18 centuries were mainly municipal squares, natural lawns and highways.
With the development of school physical education at the end of 18, educators began to pay attention to the construction of new stadiums.
For example, 1794, rugby college bought an open space and built a big playground for students to play cricket and football.
During this period, the European continent still took ancient competitive sports as the main content, and its newly-built sports facilities did not get rid of the influence of ancient arena style.
The stadium is generally oval, surrounded by rising stands, such as the newly-built stadium in Milan-Caroca at the end of 18, and Stefano's stadium in Maceroda.
/kloc-At the end of 0/8, the gymnasiums built by the pioneers of modern German gymnastics were actually only comprehensive gymnasiums for track and field, unarmed gymnastics and instrumental gymnastics.
After entering the19th century, with the development of competitive sports, the construction of stadiums and gymnasiums has attracted more and more attention from all walks of life. Some universities in Britain, such as Oxford University and Cambridge University, also have stadiums for track and field and ball games.
During this period, cricket and other sports venues were also used to hold track and field competitions. For example, in 1864, the sports meeting between Oxford University and Cambridge University was held in the cricket ground of Christian Church.
/kloc-In the mid-20th century, indoor sports facilities began to appear.
The earliest gymnasium in Germany-1850 The gymnasium built by Heather Shpis is the most representative.
The building covers an area of 6,000 square feet and is divided into two indoor venues by a movable partition.
Free-hand gymnastics, instrumental gymnastics and even parade exercises can be carried out in it.
Since the late19th century, the construction of indoor stadiums has become a common practice in continental Europe and North America.
From the end of 19 to the beginning of the 20th century, the architecture of stadiums and gymnasiums began to transition to modern style.
Its development trend is as follows:
First, with the emergence of large-scale comprehensive sports events and people's various sports needs, stadiums and buildings have also begun to develop in a comprehensive and large-scale direction.
For example, the Kanlun Stadium and Berlin Stadium appeared in Germany in the early 20th century, including runways, bicycle and motor vehicle runways, racetracks, hockey fields and tennis courts.
During this period, the appearance of basket-shaped, semi-circular, pointed-round, four-solution-shaped and other comprehensive sports fields marked that the sports field design entered a modern stage.
This kind of sports ground generally consists of track and field runway and football field surrounded by it.
In this new type of stadium design, the basketball court designed by German Carl Dim has the most advantages-the straight track of the runway is long, which can make full use of the venue area and help the audience watch the game on the curve, so it is widely used by designers.
Second, in order to meet the needs of the competition between the club and the country, while unifying the rules of the competition, it also puts forward unified requirements compared with the landmarks of the stadium.
For example, 1845 determines the area and shape of the baseball field, 1863 also specifies the length and width of the football field, and the standard area of the discus throwing circle of 19 12 is 2.50 square meters.
The standardization of sports venues also appears in other projects.
Third, in the late19th century, people's efforts to eliminate the adverse effects of climate on competitive sports achieved initial results.
The appearance of 1876 artificial skating rink indicates that the all-weather era of sports facilities has arrived.
/kloc-in the last few years of the 0/9th century, the application of cold-proof equipment in German gymnasiums proved that human beings have begun to demand the comfort of sports venues.
In the formation and development of modern competitive sports, sports equipment has been increasingly enriched and gradually improved.
This is because, on the one hand, the development of gymnastics in continental Europe and the formation of new sports in various regions of the world have led to the emergence of corresponding sports equipment.
Such as horizontal bar, parallel bars, wooden horse, rings and other auxiliary gymnastics practice equipment, are gradually formed with the development of gymnastics.
After basketball and volleyball came out as new sports, after a period of practice, they also had their own special match balls (handball was used in basketball at the earliest, and basketball bladder was used in volleyball).
On the other hand, in order to facilitate the safety and convenience of training and competition, the equipment of various events has also been improved accordingly: boxers use boxing gloves (1947), fencers wear iron mesh masks (1776), hurdles eliminate natural obstacles (1850), and metal balls are replaced by barbells (65444.
The motivation to achieve excellent results is also the driving factor for the improvement and perfection of sports equipment.
In order to improve their performance, track and field athletes use spikes; The rower increased the length of the paddle and made a fish-shaped and quadrilateral rowing boat; Skiing eliminated the thick and stupid long pole and replaced it with short pole; Table tennis players use rubber particle rackets instead of wooden rackets.
Similar situations also exist widely in other sports.
In order to meet the needs of regional and international competitions, with the establishment of international sports organizations, the standards of sports equipment have also been unified.
For example, 1974 first stipulated tennis net (1884 was revised to 91.4cm); At the end of 19, the weight and shape of shot put and discus were also determined; At the beginning of the 20th century, the length and weight of javelin were unified.
The extensive application of modern scientific and technological achievements in competitive sports has also strongly promoted the development of sports equipment.
For example, the lightweight of internal combustion engine, the invention of ignition device and gasifier make cars and motorcycles suitable for competitive sports.
In addition, 19 12 The electric timer and terminal photographic equipment appeared in Stockholm Olympic Games, which improved the accuracy of performance evaluation.
Modern sports training Modern sports training can be divided into two stages: experience-guided imitation learning period and transition period to scientific training.
(1) Experience Guidance and Imitation Learning Period
From the formation of modern sports to the 1950s of 19 (or even longer in continental Europe, until 1970s), it was a period without scientific basis, and the training was mainly conducted by competitive coaches based on personal experience or imitating the technical movements of excellent athletes.
During this period, most instructors believe in the principle of increasing exercise time without scientific basis.
Dominated by this principle, some athletes often participate in two competitions and three trainings every week in order to improve their sports performance, and each training lasts for 3~5 hours.
The most prominent thing is that in track and field and water sports at that time, the competitive coach did not adopt the correct training method according to the characteristics of his own project, but decided the training amount of athletes according to the practical experience of horse training.
Trying to maintain the highest speed and running long and short distances continuously was the main training method at that time.
Boxing and weightlifting players pay one-sided attention to muscle development.
Even directors of chess and card racing (mostly real sports experts) adopt common "rigid formulas" in their training methods and principles, and rarely innovate, let alone pay attention to psychological and personality problems in sports training.
During this period, people who are "coaches" in most sports are generally older and better skilled athletes.
These people lack knowledge of physiology and anatomy. They only play the role of "sparring" in sports training, and promote the improvement of athletes' sports level with superb sports skills, far from being coaches in the modern sense, which play a decisive role in the principles and methods of sports training.
For this phenomenon, Gustav Hugo Ruskin, a German gymnast who participated in the parallel bars dispute, once accused: "This is really strange. In order to take good care of horse racing, when hiring a breeder, we should consider his knowledge level in horse anatomy and physiology, but the person entrusted with developing and strengthening the human body does not need to have the knowledge we require the breeder to have. "
One of the reasons why the level of sports training in continental Europe could not be improved rapidly during this period was that many influential athletes thought amateur sports were a means to promote health, strengthen physical strength and kill time; Sports group is just a new social place, so the purpose of training is only to enhance people's comfort, dexterity and strength, and its content only involves activities related to life and rest system.
The spread of this training concept makes it difficult for people to turn their attention to sports training aimed at improving sports performance.
Only in the United States (including Britain to some extent) has real sports training appeared.
The method of arranging training twice a day has achieved initial results and has begun to be implemented in some sports.
Experienced sports training instructors, such as Dr. Winship, have left the old road of learning from horse training methods and started to explore the athletes' own abilities.
In addition, Americans have learned how to guide and organize training activities according to the characteristics of different sports. For example, in baseball, by adopting the training method suitable for this project, the hitting power and the rotation of the ball are improved, thus improving the sports performance.
From the end of 19 to the eve of the First World War, experiential and imitative sports training gradually changed to scientific training.
During this period, scientific research achievements in the fields of medicine, physiology and genetics also began to have an impact on sports training.
The research achievements in the fields of medicine and physiology (muscle measuring instrument invented by Italian physiologist Angelo Moso in 1984, organ report on heart function and blood circulation in 1990s, blood condition test and cardiovascular efficacy measurement method in the early 20th century) gradually entered the field of sports training research.
The research results of German psychologist Winter make sports trainers start to think about the training arrangement from a new angle-the interest (psychology) of athletes.
In addition, Golden's conclusion that human characteristics can be measured in genetic research, Pavlov's conditioned reflex theory, Binet.Alfred's and Simon's associative memory theory, and the law of determining skill movements have laid a theoretical foundation for studying the process of sports training.
It is precisely because of the application of these achievements that the exploration of American Athletics Research Association (established in the 1990s of 19) and Competitive Sports Research Association (established in 1907) began to have a clear direction.
After long-term experience accumulation, sports coaches finally understand that to achieve excellent sports results, we can't just rely on personal experience, nor can we imitate them everywhere, let alone let athletes do it blindly, but we must cultivate their physical qualities and abilities necessary for good results while forming sports skills.
This understanding is close to the later theories of comprehensive training method and auxiliary training method.
In the training practice of "all-around athletes" from the end of 65438 to the beginning of the 20th century, the comprehensive training method and auxiliary training method have been gradually applied by people who don't teach themselves: gymnasts engage in football and track and field sports, skaters participate in swimming and running, and wrestlers engage in gymnastics and track and field training.
Facts have proved that the later comprehensive training method and auxiliary training method started from this kind of unconscious training.
The principle of training according to the characteristics of individual sports has been paid more and more attention.
In all kinds of ball games, the role of technology has been understood by many coaches.
A preliminary training plan has been drawn up and purposeful experiments have begun.
In track and field, due to the cooperation of training and equipment and the improvement of technology, new sports techniques such as squatting start, "scissors" high jump and straight leg forward hurdle have been created.
The position of the coach in the sports team has changed. They are no longer the "sparring partners" of athletes, but have become the drafters of the technical and tactical training plan of the whole team.
Because of this, since the early 1980s, some organizations began to prohibit the employment of professional players as coaches, because they have superb sports skills, lack the necessary physical and psychological knowledge to improve their sports performance, lack the ability to formulate team tactics, and are not competent for the task of guiding sports teams.
Modern sports groups and organization management Modern sports groups were formed and developed on the basis of European sports groups in the late Middle Ages during the formation and development of modern sports.
In the late Middle Ages, European sports groups were basically established by aristocrats, and their members and activities were very exclusive, which lasted until18th century.
For example, the Edinburgh Skating Club established by 1742, the Royal Archery Club established by 1787 and so on. , are all sports groups composed entirely of nobles.
After entering the19th century, with the development of capitalist industries and cities, as well as the progress of modern education and sports, sports groups in the modern sense have also emerged rapidly.
In less than 100 years, sports organizations have experienced two stages of development: from scattered countries to national comprehensive sports organizations.
Due to the extensive influence of British outdoor competitive fever on the world, from 65438 to the fifties and sixties of 2009, various competitive sports groups appeared all over Europe.
Before that, there were only a handful of sports clubs outside the UK, such as golf, boating, sailing and cricket clubs established by engineers in Bocheng (18 14), Hamburg (1836), le havre and Amsterdam (1838).
In the second half of the19th century, sports groups appeared in all walks of life in Europe in Ye Guang.
Churches, paramilitary organizations, factories, residential areas ... have established some sports groups.
With the emergence of a large number of sports groups and the increasing frequency of competitions, some national individual sports organizations have appeared in Britain, the United States and other countries since the late 1950s.
1858, the United States established the National Baseball Federation, and in the 1960s and 1980s, most sports in Britain established national organizations. For example, all England Archery Association (1860), Football Association (1963), Hockey Association (1866), Sailing Association (1875), Cycling Union (1878) and Amateur Athletics Association.
Belgium, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, France, New Zealand and Australia also held similar national games.
The rapid increase of competition activities and the continuous expansion of the scale have made some sports associations feel the need to further strengthen cooperation, and some countries have begun to establish comprehensive national sports federations.
The American National Amateur Athletes Association was founded in 65438-0878, which is the earliest national organization in the world. It later developed into the National Amateur Sports Association and is still one of the most important organizations in the United States.
Germany, France and other European countries have also established similar sports organizations.
Although there are hundreds of national individual sports associations in Britain, they are not united into a comprehensive national sports organization.
The establishment of national individual or comprehensive sports groups has promoted the development of sports.
First of all, they lead to the unification of competition rules and enable people to practice and compete in a unified way and standard.
Rules are the product of the development of competition, which reacts to competition and enables competition to be carried out on a broader basis.
Thus, a dynamic model to promote the continuous progress of sports technology in a certain direction has been formed, and the necessary communication tools to promote the continuous expansion of sports communication have emerged.
This has opened up a broad prospect for the development of training theory and practice.
Secondly, the widespread appearance of national sports organizations has also created conditions for the internationalization of competitive sports organizations.
Until the end of 18, all kinds of competitive sports were still in a spontaneous state. As long as it is not considered to touch social order and national interests, the rulers usually ignore it.
After entering the19th century, the situation began to change. At the same time of gymnastics crisis, competitive sports are increasingly favored by people.
Some school authorities were the first to intervene and organize spontaneous competitive sports, such as the English Rugby College mentioned earlier, which adopted the "autonomy principle" for school sports in the early19th century.
By the second half of the19th century, even some European countries felt it necessary to intervene in the development of competitive sports.
Denmark and Prussia issued orders on developing playground sports in 1868 and 1882 respectively, encouraging schools and local authorities to promote group sports such as ball games.
Physical education teachers and principals in many countries have also played an active role in this regard.
For example, the gymnastics teachers' meeting held in Salzburg, Germany in 1874 asked the municipal authorities to build public sports grounds, and the American Health and Sports Association, established in 1885, publicly asked the states to give legal protection to sports groups.
Three years later, new york passed the first such bill, and in the 1990s, American states set off an upsurge of sports and sports legislation.
In the same period, similar situations occurred in other European countries, and some administrative orders related to the development of competitive sports were issued one after another.
Because the school was one of the main places to carry out competitive sports at that time, the organization and management of competitive sports gradually became one of the main functions of educational administrative departments in some countries.
For example, Baldin Fowler, Minister of School Affairs Management in Denmark, often issued instructions on developing competitive sports in public schools in the 1990s, and set up group game courses with Danish ball and hockey as the content at gymnastics teachers' seminars hosted by * * every summer.
Although * * * attached importance to competitive sports, the development of competitive sports at that time did not make the country feel the need to set up a special department to manage it.
It was after the end of World War I that the * * * organization was established to take charge of sports and sports affairs.