In the later period of primitive society, there was a phenomenon of polarization between the rich and the poor. For example, in TombNo. 10 In the late Wenkou culture, there were funerary objects with complicated structures. The deceased wore exquisite jade ornaments, shovels, ivory utensils and nearly 100 exquisite pottery.
After entering the class society, the polarization between the rich and the poor is even more disparity. The funerary objects in the tombs of kings and nobles are extremely rich and exquisite, including bronzes, jade, lacquered wood, bone horns, land and so on. The system of human sacrifice was also very popular in Shang Dynasty.
From the late Yin Dynasty to the early Zhou Dynasty, burial tombs began to appear on tombs. After the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, the tomb became bigger and bigger, shaped like a hill. In particular, the sealing of the emperor's mausoleum is a big project with obvious development and changes. The following are several forms of imperial tombs:
The first "square". Its practice is to tamp the soil layer above the tomb to make it a square cone with a small top and a large bottom, because its upper part is a small square flat top, as if the top of the square cone had been cut off. Therefore, this day is "beside". The mausoleum of Qin Shihuang Mausoleum in Lintong, Shaanxi Province looks like an earthen mountain with a typical square shape. The tombs of the emperors' tombs in the Han Dynasty also took the form of squares.
The second is "taking mountains as the mausoleum". That is to say, the tombs of emperors in the Tang Dynasty were all in the form of mountains as tombs. In the Tang Dynasty, Zhaoling took Jiuyi Mountain as the mausoleum and built it by chiseling the mountain.
The third kind of "Bao Cheng Bao Ding". That is, build a tall brick city above the underground palace, and add soil in the brick city to make it a dome above the city wall. This kind of city wall is called "Baocheng", and the circular tomb above it is called "Baoding". There is also a square tower protruding forward in front of Baocheng. There is a square tower on the tower, which is called "Fangcheng Tower", and there is a posthumous title monument of the emperor or queen in the building. Emperors and Empresses in Ming and Qing Dynasties all adopted this tomb type, which consists of Fangcheng, Baocheng and Baoding.
Shang Dynasty was the heyday of China, and the social productive forces were highly developed. Slave owners and nobles headed by the king ruled a huge country. Therefore, the tomb system of Shang Dynasty has strict class and grade differences, and the tomb scale of the ruling class is very grand.
There are "zigzag tombs" and "zigzag tombs" in Wang Shangling, Anyang. The tomb of zigzag tomb is a huge square or zigzag vertical hole pit with a pyramid-shaped mound on each side. One of the largest zigzag tombs in Houjiazhuang, the tomb area is about 330 square meters, with a total area of 1800 square meters and a depth of over 15 meters. A similar tomb was found in Yidu, Shandong Province, belonging to the prince or leader of Fang State. The tomb of the Han Dynasty is a rectangular pit with a pyramid-shaped mound on the north and south sides. The largest Han tomb in Wuguan Village covers an area of nearly 170 square meters, with a total area of 340 square meters and a depth of more than 7 meters. In addition to the tombs, there are other Han tombs of nobles, but the scale is slightly inferior. Among the noble tombs, there is also an "A-shaped tomb", and there is only a pyramid-shaped tomb in the south of the tomb, which is generally smaller than the Han tomb. The vast majority of tombs in Shang Dynasty are rectangular vertical holes without tombs. Although the shapes are similar, the scales are quite different. Big noble's tomb covers an area of more than 20 square meters, such as Fu Hao's tomb of Wang Shangwu's spouse discovered in Xiaotun, Anyang. The tomb of ordinary small aristocrats is often less than 10 square meter. The tombs of civilians are smaller, and some are even less than 2 square meters.
The tombs of Shang kings and nobles at all levels are all made of wood. The burial chamber of zigzag tomb is zigzag or square on the plane. For other types of graves, the tomb plane is rectangular. The burial utensils for receiving the body are all wooden coffins, which are placed in the middle of the coffin room. The graves of civilians, some with coffins, some without coffins. The main way to place your body is to lean back and straighten your limbs. No matter whether it is a noble tomb or a civilian tomb, there is only one owner, and there is no case of husband and wife being buried together. The funerary objects in the tombs of princes and nobles at all levels in Shang Dynasty are extremely rich and exquisite. Including all kinds of bronzes, jades, pottery, lacquered wood, bone horns, etc. There are more than 460 bronzes, more than 750 jades, more than 560 bone horns and nearly 7000 shells buried with them.
It can be imagined that if the tomb of the Shang Dynasty had not been stolen, his funerary objects should have reached a more alarming level.
A feature of the tombs of the ruling class in Shang Dynasty is that a large number of people and animals are sacrificed. There are dozens of martyrs in the tombs of Wang Shang and big noble, ranging from one to two hundred people, including the attendants of the tomb owner, maids and concubines, guards and various handymen. There is also a kind of "human sacrifice" that is entirely for killing and martyrdom. Martyrs are buried in different ways, many of which are prone to burial. Horses and dogs are the most common animals sacrificed. All kinds of tombs have a rectangular pit in the middle of the bottom of the tomb, just below the waist of the owner's body, so it is called "waist pit", and a martyr or dog is buried in the pit. Even in the graves of civilians, there are often waist pits where dogs are buried (see).
Large pieces of rubble were found on the tomb of a zigzag tomb in Houjiazhuang, Anyang, which should be the cornerstone of the house. Houses and cornerstones made of rammed earth were found on two rectangular tombs, Fu Hao Tomb in Xiaotun, Anyang and Confucius Village in Dasi. It can be seen that houses are sometimes built on the ground, from tombs to general aristocratic tombs. They may be used for sacrifice, similar to the so-called "enjoying the hall" in later generations.
The burial system of the Western Zhou Dynasty inherited the burial system of the Shang Dynasty. As the tomb has not yet been discovered, I wonder if there was a glyph tomb at that time. The tombs of princes and nobles include two Han-shaped tombs and one "A-shaped tomb". There are many series of Han tombs in Xunxian county, Henan province, which are similar in shape to those in Shang Dynasty. In addition to the above two types of tombs, most tombs only have rectangular tombs, and there is no pyramid-shaped mound. Their scale varies greatly because of the identity of the tomb owner. Like the Shang Dynasty, there are many waist pits at the bottom of the tomb.
According to records, the coffin system of the Zhou Dynasty was strictly graded, that is, "the emperor's coffin weighed seven times, the vassal weighed five times, the doctor weighed three times, and the scholar weighed again". Archaeological excavations show that there are double coffins in some large and medium-sized tombs, which shows that the records are generally reliable. The funerary objects in the tombs of princes and nobles are still mainly bronze ritual vessels, but compared with the Shang Dynasty, there are fewer wine vessels and more food vessels. Among all kinds of utensils, Ding He is the most important. According to the etiquette system of the Zhou Dynasty, the emperor used Jiuding, the vassal used seven Ding, the doctor used five Ding, and the scholar used three Ding or one Ding. The emperors of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty used Jiuding, the Qing Dynasty used seven Ding, the doctors used five Ding, and the scholars used three Ding or one Ding. When used with Ding, Jiuding matches eight, seven Ding matches six, five Ding matches four, and three Ding matches two, which are also clearly defined. Archaeological excavations have also proved this point. For example, in Shaanxi County, Henan Province, there are some large and medium-sized noble tombs buried with seven ding, five ding, three ding or one ding respectively; The size of the mausoleum has also decreased in turn. Among them, the "Seven Dings Tomb" has been confirmed as the tomb of Prince Guo.
Like the Shang Dynasty, there are often "chariots and horses pits" near the tombs of princes and nobles (see the colored map [chariots and horses pits]), and its scale depends on the identity of the tomb owner. Take the above-mentioned Guo cemetery as an example, there are 20 horses and 20 cars buried in the chariots and horses pit of Guo Wangling, 5 cars and 0 horses buried in the chariots and horses pit of two "Wuding Tombs". Hou Wei's Tomb in Xunxian County was buried with a total of 72 horses 12 vehicles. Martyrdom was still common in the early Western Zhou Dynasty, but decreased slightly after the middle period. But until the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, some tombs still used human sacrifices.
The excavation proved that there was a system of joint burial in the Western Zhou Dynasty, and the husband and wife were buried in two tombs which were very close to each other, which was called "joint burial at different points". The tomb of Bo and his wife Jing Ji, discovered in Rujiazhuang, Baoji, Shaanxi Province in the middle of the Western Zhou Dynasty, provides evidence in this regard. During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, this system of different caves being buried together became more common. For example, in the Jin and Korean cemeteries in the watershed of Changzhi, Shanxi, all large and medium-sized noble tombs are in pairs, one man and one woman, and there is no doubt that they are husband and wife.
The tombs in the Warring States period still maintained the shape since the Shang and Zhou Dynasties, and some big tombs even retained waist pits. Some monarchs and big noble's tombs, such as King Zhongshan's tomb in Pingshan, Wang Wei's tomb in Huixian and Zhao's tomb in Handan, have pyramid-shaped tombs on both sides, which are similar to those in Shang and Western Zhou Dynasties. Some monarchs' tombs, such as Anhui Province, like many nobles' tombs, have only one tomb or no tomb. Suizhou, Hubei Province is a rare special case. It was dug in hilly rocks, but there was no tomb, and the shape of the tomb was irregular. The tombs of princes and nobles are still popular today. In addition to horses and chariots, there is a boat pit near the tomb of King Zhongshan, where the boat is buried. At this time of the tomb, stones are often piled up in the tomb for reinforcement, and charcoal is piled up to prevent moisture. Wang Wei's Tomb in Huixian County contains a lot of sand to prevent theft. In southern Chu area, people generally fill coffins with white or gray clay to ensure the immortality of the body and funerary objects. Coffins still have a strict hierarchy. The tombs of princes and nobles use many coffins. The tomb of Zeng Houyi in Suizhou is huge and divided into four parts. Shuang Mu's coffin is painted beautifully.
Due to the development of production and handicraft industry, the funerary objects in aristocratic tombs have reached an unprecedented level in variety, quantity and quality. At that time, lacquerware was beautifully made, and its proportion in funerary objects increased obviously. However, ritual vessels and musical instruments are still regarded as the most important funerary objects by the ruling class. For example, there is one chime, 64 chimes,/kloc-0 chimes and 32 chimes in the tomb of Zeng Houyi, which shows the grand occasion of princes' rites and music. In the bronze ritual vessels, there is a group of ***9 "Ding Sheng"; A group of ***8 pieces, which is in line with the monarch status of the tomb owner. The lower nobility and the upper common people are mostly buried in the tombs with pottery "ritual vessels" imitating bronze ritual vessels. A large number of small tombs of the Warring States period have been excavated in various places, but there are not many funerary objects, but there are a number of pottery similar to bronze, such as ding, beans, pots and so on. Only the Qin tombs in the Weihe River valley are an exception. The pottery in the tomb is an altar, box, jar, urn and other daily necessities, not a ritual vessel. This may be due to the fact that Qin was less influenced by the ritual system and had its own funeral customs.
In the small tombs in Guanzhong and Central Plains in the late Warring States period, soil cave tomb with horizontal holes appeared, and a huge hollow brick tomb was also used to replace the wooden tomb. This kind of horizontal cave tomb and hollow brick tomb were not common at that time, but their appearance meant that the traditional tomb system had changed since Shang and Zhou Dynasties. In the late Spring and Autumn Period and the early Warring States Period, there was still the phenomenon of martyrdom in some tombs, but generally speaking, the Warring States Period was less common than the Shang Dynasty and the Western Zhou Dynasty. The custom of burying wooden figurines and pottery figurines is prevalent and can be regarded as a substitute for human sacrifice. Since Shang and Zhou Dynasties, the bodies of tomb owners are mostly straight limbs. During the Warring States Period, except for Chu in the south, the funeral of bent limbs was popular in Qin, Han, Wei, Zhao, Yan and other countries in the Yellow River valley to varying degrees. Especially in the western state of Qin, a considerable proportion of tombs are buried with bent limbs, in which the bodies lie on their sides and their limbs curl up. This may be influenced by a special burial custom in the upper reaches of the Yellow River since the Neolithic Age.
In the Han Dynasty, horizontal caves were widely used as tombs, and tombs were built with bricks and stones, imitating real-life houses in shape. This is an epoch-making change in China's ancient tomb system. This change mainly began in the middle of the Western Han Dynasty, first occurred in the Yellow River basin, and then spread to all parts of the country. In the Qin Dynasty and the early Western Han Dynasty, the aristocratic landlord class still used vertical hole earth pit tombs with wooden coffins. In the Yangtze River valley and remote areas in the north and south, vertical wooden tombs continued until the late Western Han Dynasty and even the early Eastern Han Dynasty. In Qin and Western Han Dynasties, wooden tombs with vertical holes, the coffin system followed the ritual system of Zhou Dynasty, and the hierarchy was strict. Some Han tombs also use the so-called "".
Among the noble tombs, Hebei Province and Qufu, Shandong Province can be regarded as the representatives of the emerging Hengdian tombs in the middle of the Western Han Dynasty. They are huge caves drilled on the cliff, which are used as burial rooms, so they are called "cliff tombs", and their shapes and structures completely imitate houses. In the Yellow River valley and the northern region, the general horizontal cave tombs are underground earth cave tombs, which are small in scale and simple in structure, and their owners belong to the lower landlord class. This kind of soil cave tomb has been popular for a long time since the Han Dynasty. The new burial system in the Han Dynasty was also manifested in the "hollow brick tombs" in the Central Plains. It was only popular in the Western Han Dynasty and basically disappeared in the Eastern Han Dynasty. Around the middle and late Western Han Dynasty, tombs built with small bricks began to appear in the Central Plains and Guanzhong area, which were generally called "brick-room tombs". By the Eastern Han Dynasty, brick tombs were rapidly popularized and became the most common tombs in all parts of the country. Brick-room tombs of aristocratic bureaucrats are large in scale and complex in structure, and their layout imitates their yamen. Many graves are painted with colorful murals.
Stone tombs, which began to appear in the late Western Han Dynasty, flourished in some areas in the Eastern Han Dynasty. There are portraits carved in the tomb, so it is called "stone tomb". The structure and layout of the tomb are also imitations of real-life houses. Some stone tombs are painted with colorful murals. During the Eastern Han Dynasty, brick-room tombs in Sichuan were often embedded with another kind of brick, and there were portraits on the walls, which were called "portrait brick tombs". Cliff tombs were popular in all parts of Sichuan since the Eastern Han Dynasty.
In ancient China, coffins were called burial utensils. After the middle of the Western Han Dynasty, all kinds of tombs with horizontal points, especially the brick-chamber tombs and stone-chamber tombs in the Eastern Han Dynasty, played a role in the tombs themselves, which can be called "brick-chamber" and "stone-chamber", but the funerary utensils in the tombs were coffins-free. In the early and middle Western Han Dynasty, husband and wife were still buried together in the form of "different points". After the mid-Western Han Dynasty, the system changed, except for the mausoleum, couples were generally buried in the same tomb. The tomb of Hengxue provides convenience for being buried together with the tomb.
Compared with the Warring States period, there are fewer bronzes and more lacquerware in Han tombs. In order to store a lot of food and drinks, there are often many large pottery in the tomb. In the early and middle period of the Western Han Dynasty, it was mainly a practical burial tool. After the mid-Western Han Dynasty, a variety of ceramics specially made for tombs were added, including models of warehouses, stoves, wells, mills and pavilions, as well as statues of pigs, dogs and chickens. By the Eastern Han Dynasty, there were more kinds and quantities of funerary wares. This is a great change in the funerary objects of ancient tombs in China. In the tombs of nobles in the mid-Western Han Dynasty, horses and chariots were still used for human sacrifice, but they were buried in the tombs instead of setting up separate pits for horses and chariots near the tombs. After the late Western Han Dynasty, real horses and chariots were no longer used for human sacrifice, but were replaced by wooden or ceramic models. In the south, there are also models of wooden boats or pottery boats buried with them.
In the Han Dynasty, it was illegal to be buried by human beings. So in archaeological excavations, with a few exceptions, no human sacrifice has been seen. The cruel system of human sacrifice, which began in Shang Dynasty, basically ended. In "Body Double", wooden figurines and pottery figurines as handmaiden are placed in the tombs of the ruling class.
On the ground, the tombs of the ruling class are generally built with mounds. In front of the grave, a ancestral temple is usually set up for sacrifice. In the Eastern Han Dynasty, it was popular to build stone tombs in front of tombs, with stone statues of people and animals placed side by side. It is also popular to erect a stone tablet on the cemetery to record the date of death, family lineage and life story of the tomb owner.
Lintong, Shaanxi Province, is the 1 mausoleum in China. The cemetery is rectangular in plane with double walls inside and outside. The mound is in the south of the cemetery, and the plane is square. There is a sleeping room in the north of the cemetery, which sets a precedent for setting a bedroom in the mausoleum. In the tombs of the Western Han Dynasty, except for the Baling Department of Wendi, which is "hidden because of the mountains", there are square mounds with overlapping bucket shapes, which are located in the center of the cemetery. The cemetery is square, surrounded by walls, with a "Sima Gate" on each side and a double door outside. Han inherited the Qin system and set up a sleeping hall in the cemetery. The emperors of the Han dynasty were buried together, enjoying the same title, but different graves. Hou Ling is next to the mausoleum, smaller than the mausoleum. Since the primitive temple was built in Changling during the reign of Hui Di, temples have been built near the cemetery in all the tombs of the Western Han Dynasty. Mausoleum of the Eastern Han Dynasty started from the Fairy World Mausoleum of the Ming Emperor. Instead of building walls around the mausoleum, it was "walking on a horse", and a stone temple was built in front of the grave for sacrifice. No temple has been built near the cemetery since the celestial mausoleum.
The burial system in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties generally inherited the Han Dynasty. However, after the war at the end of the Han Dynasty, the social economy was seriously damaged, and the wind of reburial of the ruling class had to be changed.
Since the Wei and Jin Dynasties, large-scale and beautifully carved stone relief tombs have been rare. The tombs of aristocratic bureaucrats are generally brick tombs, and sometimes there are stone gates. Compared with Han tombs, the layout of tombs is simplified and the area is reduced. However, there are some new developments in the detailed structure and facilities of the mausoleum. For example, the tomb of the Western Jin Dynasty in Luoyang has corner columns and buckets, and the tomb of the Eastern Jin Dynasty in Nanjing has straight windows. From the end of the Han Dynasty to the Wei and Jin Dynasties, coffin beds became popular in tombs. In the gold tombs in the Yangtze River valley, there are sometimes lamp niches and tables. These structures and facilities are made of bricks, which makes the ancient tomb more like a living room in real life. In the Yellow River valley, the brick tomb is very long, and the part near the tomb is a tunnel. As time goes on, the tunnel is gradually lengthened. During the Northern Wei Dynasty, some tombs opened patios at the top of the tunnels, leading directly to the ground. In the late Northern Dynasty, some tombs had tunnels as long as 20 meters and three or four patios. This is an imitation of a real-life house. The more patios, the more doors, the more houses and the more courtyards. During the Wei and Jin Dynasties, most of the big families in remote areas such as Liaodong and Hexi followed the old system of Han Dynasty, built tombs with masonry structure, and painted on the tomb walls and brick surfaces, with similar themes to the murals of Han tombs. In the Central Plains, murals are rarely painted in tombs; But in the Northern Wei Dynasty, murals became popular again. During the Eastern Jin and Southern Dynasties in the Yangtze River valley, it was popular to decorate the tomb wall with bricks with portraits.
The funerary objects in this period are mainly ceramics such as cups, plates, bowls, pots, fruit boxes and other tableware, as well as daily necessities such as smoking stoves, spittoons and tigers. Its shape often varies from region to region. Some objects exist only in the south and not in the north. Generally speaking, the number of porcelain has soared, especially in the Yangtze River basin. Pottery models such as granary, stove, well and mill, which were popular in Han dynasty, and pottery statues of poultry and livestock are still in use, but they are often small in size and rough in production. The main funerary objects in the tombs of aristocratic bureaucrats are all kinds of pottery figurines. From the Jin Dynasty to the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the later the times, the more kinds and quantities. At first, there were a few male and female waiters and warriors. From the period of the Five Hus and Sixteen Kingdoms, a large number of cavalry, infantry, civil servants, imperial guards and trumpeters were added. Except for the handmaiden in the house, most of them are the guards of honor when the tomb owner travels. They have obvious military nature, which reflects that rulers everywhere had private armed music at that time. There are hundreds of ritual figurines in Sima Jinlong's tomb in Datong in the early Northern Wei Dynasty and Yuan's tomb in Luoyang in the late Northern Wei Dynasty. In the late Northern Wei Dynasty, there were always a pair of particularly tall gatekeepers on both sides of the tomb door. In addition to pottery figurines, there are porcelain figurines in the south, but the custom of burial is not as good as that in the north. From the end of the Han Dynasty to the Wei and Jin Dynasties, the ruling class often rode ox carts, which remained unchanged for a long time. During the Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, the model of pottery ox cart was often buried in the graves of aristocratic bureaucrats. The etiquette team composed of all kinds of pottery figurines is centered on ox carts. The burial of the pottery "tomb beast" began in the Western Jin Dynasty. There is often only one tomb beast in the tombs of the Western Jin Dynasty, with four legs standing upright. In the tombs of the Northern Wei Dynasty, the town tomb animals were placed in pairs on both sides of the tomb door, lying in a prone position. In the late Northern Wei Dynasty, two tomb animals in the tomb, a beast face and a human face, were all squatting. Most of the tombs and town tombs of the Eastern Jin Dynasty and the Southern Dynasties in the Yangtze River valley have maintained the shape of the Western Jin Dynasty and lacked changes. During the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, it was built in a tomb. Most of the epitaphs in the Jin Dynasty are rectangular, or stone or brick, while the epitaphs in the Western Jin Dynasty discovered earlier in Luoyang are flat, which shows that they evolved from tombstones. It was not until the late Northern Wei Dynasty that the epitaph of Fanggaishi became popular. From then on to the Sui and Tang Dynasties, it was customized.
In the northern region dominated by the Yellow River basin, the burial system since the Northern Wei Dynasty came down in one continuous line from the Sui Dynasty to the prosperous Tang Dynasty. At that time, the tombs of aristocratic bureaucrats were all inclined tombs, including a long tunnel; There is a patio at the top of the tunnel and niches on both sides of the wall. There are 7 patios, 8 niches, 4 patios and 6 niches. There are 3 patios and 2 niches in Taichangbo Li Shuang Tomb, and the number of patios and niches is basically the same as the official title of the tomb owner. Earth caves were popular in Sui Dynasty, and the graves of senior bureaucrats were no exception. After entering the Tang Dynasty, brick houses were mostly used, and soil cave tomb was reduced to a junior official or a civilian. Ordinary bureaucrats, their graves are all single rooms. In addition to the main room, senior officials at or above two levels sometimes have a simple front hall. Li Renzhi's tomb, the tomb of Prince Zhang Huai, the tomb of Prince Yide. Like a mausoleum, there are two rooms. From the early Tang Dynasty to the prosperous Tang Dynasty, murals were very popular in the tombs of nobles and bureaucrats. Generally, dragons and white tigers are painted on the two walls in front of the tomb, and the sun, moon and stars are painted on the top of the tomb. Others include pommel horse, Ming camel, ox cart, column halberd, step riding, officials, waiters and waitresses, musicians and dancers. , painted in the corresponding parts of the tomb, its content and specifications vary with the identity of the tomb owner.
The funerary objects are mainly pottery figurines. From about the Wu and Zhou Dynasties, pottery figurines were painted with tricolor. Pottery figurines can be divided into two categories: guards when traveling and servants and waiters at home. The former had more armed figurines from Sui Dynasty to early Tang Dynasty, and then gradually decreased. Tall horse figurines and camel figurines appeared in the Wu and Zhou Dynasties. The latter has been increasing from the early Tang Dynasty to the prosperous Tang Dynasty, and both musical and dancing figurines and wandering figurines belong to this category. Influenced by Buddhism, a pair of warrior figurines guarding the tomb door evolved into heavenly king figurines in the prosperous Tang Dynasty, characterized by stepping on animals or ghosts. The beast of the town tomb inherited the form since the late Northern Wei Dynasty, one was a human face, and the other was an animal face. In the Wu and Zhou Dynasties, it further evolved into a monster with horns on its head, wings on its shoulders or snakes in its hands. Twelve-hour figurines of man and beast, which began in Sui Dynasty, were more popular in Kaiyuan and Tianbao periods. The number of pottery figurines is limited by the identity of the tomb owner. The total number of pottery figurines in Prince Yide's tomb is as many as 1000. A square epitaph with a covered stone was more commonly used in the Tang Dynasty. The size of the epitaph is graded according to the identity of the owner. For example, the epitaphs of the third-level officials are mostly about 72 cm square, while those of the first-level officials such as Yang Si, Prince Zhang Huai, Lixian County of Wang Yong and Wang Chengli are all 88 cm square, and the epitaph of Princess Yongtai is the largest, with 1 14 cm square. Prince Yide, like the son of heaven, used jade books instead of epitaphs.
After the Anshi Rebellion, great changes have taken place in the tomb system in the Tang Dynasty. First of all, the tomb structure is simplified, and the short and narrow axial pyramid pyramid pyramid pyramid pyramid pyramid pyramid pyramid pyramid pyramid pyramid pyramid pyramid pyramid pyramid pyramid pyramid pyramid pyramid pyramid pyramid pyramid pyramid pyramid mound has disappeared. The size of the tomb has shrunk, and murals are rare. The number of pottery figurines decreased and sketches were made. Heavenly King figurines and tomb animals are becoming more and more simplified, and some tombs are no longer used. Only the figurine at twelve o'clock is still popular.
In the vast area south of the Yangtze River, there are two kinds of tombs in the Tang Dynasty, namely, vertical-cave tombs and brick-room tombs, which are simple in shape and small in scale. Brick tombs are mostly rectangular, and some have two rooms side by side, and husband and wife are buried in one room. Zhang Jiuling's tomb in Shaoguan, Guangdong, has a square main room and painted walls. There are two ear rooms on both sides of the front porch, which is large in scale and similar in shape to brick tombs in northern China. Generally speaking, most of the funerary objects in the tombs of the Tang Dynasty in southern China are ceramic utensils, and there are few pottery figurines.
Except for a few tombs in the Tang Dynasty, most of them were built by mountains. In Ganling, where Tang Gaozong and Wu Zetian were buried together, an inner city with a slightly square plane was built around the main peak of Liangshan, with doors open on all sides and stone lions, stone horses and stone men outside. Zhuquemen in the south is the main entrance, and the entrance is the sacrifice hall. From the first gate in the far south to Zhuquemen in the inner city, it is 3 kilometers long, and there are stone statues of birds, beasts, horses, military commanders, civil servants and foreign leaders on both sides, as well as a "holy record" monument and a "wordless monument". The grand scale of Ganling fully shows the great national strength of the prosperous Tang Dynasty.
Five Dynasties ago, the Yongling of Wang Jian of Shu State was excavated in Chengdu, Sichuan Province, the Qinling Li of Southern Tang Dynasty and the Shunling Li of Nanjing, Jiangsu Province. The underground Xuan Palace is divided into three rooms: the front room, the middle room and the back room. There are many niches or ear rooms on both sides of each room, which may be a system inherited from the Tang Mausoleum. Although the underground Xuangong of the Tang Mausoleum has not been excavated, it is inferred from various aspects that there should also be three rooms: front, middle and back.
The most distinctive tombs of the Northern Song Dynasty in the Central Plains and northern areas are brick tombs with imitation wood structures. In the early years of the Northern Song Dynasty, the imitation wood structure in the tomb was still very simple. It was not until the middle of the Northern Song Dynasty that it reached a mature level, thus becoming a special type of brick tomb. Since then, the plane of the tomb has evolved from a square or a circle to an equilateral polygon, and the wood-like structure has evolved from a simple "one bucket with three liters" to five shops, and from a straight window to a carved lattice door. Generally, it is a single-chamber tomb, and the larger tombs in the later period are divided into two chambers. The tomb is decorated with murals or carved bricks, which mainly shows the daily life of the tomb owner, especially the scene where the couple held the "Yan Fang", and sometimes there are stories of filial sons. In some tombs in the late Northern Song Dynasty, there were also zaju carved bricks. In the back wall of the tomb, there are often carved bricks of the "female door". There are few funerary objects, probably because all kinds of objects have been fully painted and carved on murals and carved bricks.
The tombs of the Song Dynasty in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River are similar to those of the Tang Dynasty in the same area. In addition to tombs with vertical holes and pits, they are mainly simple rectangular brick tombs. The latter is often two rooms side by side, and the husband and wife are buried in one room. Besides ceramics, there are quite a few funerary objects, such as lacquerware and bronze mirrors, and occasionally silverware. In Song tombs in Jiangxi, Fujian and other places, there are pottery figurines buried with them, including twelve-hour figurines and magic figurines. In addition to brick tombs, stone tombs are also popular in Song tombs in Sichuan. The latter are mostly carved with the theme of "opening a fragrant banquet" by the host and his wife, while others are stories of filial sons.
The Mausoleum of the Northern Song Dynasty is located in Gongxian County, Henan Province, and the site selection is strictly in accordance with the requirements of Feng Shui theory. The tombs are the same in shape, all centered on earth tombs, surrounded by walls, and a memorial hall is set in front of the tombs. There are sacred gates on all sides, and there are stone lions in front of them. In the far south, there are two tulou, called Magpie Terrace and Milk Terrace. In the south, such as Taiwan to Shenmen, stone statues such as elephants, horses, tigers, sheep, envoys, civil servants and warriors are arranged on both sides of Shinto. There is a back mausoleum behind the mausoleum, which is similar to the Han tomb, but it is unique among the tombs since the Tang Dynasty. The mausoleum of the Southern Song Dynasty is near Shaoxing, Zhejiang. Because it is being buried, it is simple to build and is called "Saving the Palace". Although it generally followed the mausoleum system of the Northern Song Dynasty, there were no platforms, elephants, tombs and four gates. After offering the temple, it was made into a mysterious palace, and the body was placed in a tight and solid "hidden stone".
Distributed in North China, Inner Mongolia and Northeast China, it has the characteristics of Qidan nationality. Besides square tombs, circular tombs are also very popular. Generally, it is a single tomb, but there are also two rooms before and after the noble tomb with higher status. The tombs of Zhao Dejun, the King of Qi in Chifeng and Beijing, have three chambers: the front chamber, the middle chamber and the back chamber, and there are many ear chambers, showing the characteristics of "multi-chamber". Sometimes there are simple wooden structures in the tomb, and colorful paintings are painted. In addition to wooden coffins, sarcophagus is also very popular among burial utensils. Some tombs are painted with felt tents and sarcophagus grazing, reflecting the nomadic life of the Khitan people. In the late Liao Dynasty, tombs with octagonal or hexagonal planes began to appear.
The funerary objects of aristocratic tombs in Liao Dynasty are characterized by a large number of saddles, armor, weapons, metal masks, copper gloves and other things besides various household appliances such as gold, silver, ceramics and iron. Ceramic cockscomb pots are also unique to Liao tombs. In the middle period, the harness and weapons gradually decreased, and the shape of the cockscomb pot evolved from a leather bag to a beam-lifting device. In the late Liao Dynasty, tombs were generally buried unarmed, and the harness was greatly simplified, while the cockscomb pot disappeared. Since the second half of the early period, there are often stone epitaphs in Chinese or Qidan in Liao tombs, which are similar in shape to those in Tang and Song Dynasties.
On the one hand, Jin tombs were influenced by Liao tombs, and more inherited the burial system of Northern Song Dynasty. The mourning tomb and Xinglong Xiaozhong cemetery in Xincheng, Hebei Province basically belong to the early Jin Dynasty. Due to the high title of the tomb owner, they are all brick tombs with many rooms. There are wooden structures and murals in the tomb. The main tomb of Shiliai Tomb is octagonal, and the two ear chambers in the front room are round, similar in shape to the Liao Tomb. Xiao Zhonggong's epitaph is Khitan. The tombs of the landlord class in the late Jin Dynasty distributed in the southern part of North China and the Central Plains are mainly single-chamber brick tombs, which are mostly square or octagonal in plan, and some are round. Wood-like structures are widely used from the entrance to the tomb. Some tombs are painted with murals, with the theme of opening incense banquets, grazing and tamping soil, while most tombs use carved bricks in large quantities, which are manifested as doorways, lattice doors, lattice windows, tables and chairs, screens, lamps and potted flowers.
Brick-room tombs with imitation wood structure in Yuan Dynasty were mainly found in Shanxi Province. Its characteristic is that the structure of wood-like buildings is increasingly simplified, and some of them have become schematic diagrams. The tombs in central Shanxi are mainly decorated with murals, and the theme is still incense banquet, but it highlights the image of the tomb owner and omits the scene of geisha music. There are many carved bricks in the tombs in southern Shanxi, and most of them are stories of dutiful sons or flowers. Since the Five Dynasties and the Northern Song Dynasty, brick tombs with wood-like building structures have come to an end in the Yuan Dynasty.
The Yuan tombs in the south follow the old system of the Southern Song Dynasty, mostly simple rectangular brick tombs with two rooms juxtaposed and buried separately. As a feature of the times, many tombs use lime, rice juice and charcoal to strengthen the tomb, protect the coffin, and lay rosin at the bottom of the tomb to facilitate the preservation of the body. In the Ming Dynasty, the brick tombs of the general bureaucratic landlord class adopted sealed coffins and formulated anti-corrosion measures. Therefore, some tombs are not only intact, but also perishable items such as clothes, clothes, books, calligraphy and painting.
In the Ming Dynasty, the tomb in Fengyang, Anhui Province was the earliest. The shape of the imperial tomb is inherited from the mausoleum of the Northern Song Dynasty, and basically still follows the old system since the Han and Tang Dynasties. The ancestral mausoleum in Sizhou was a little late, and its shape was similar to that of the Xiaoling Mausoleum of Zhu Yuanzhang in Nanjing, which initiated the mausoleum system in the Ming Dynasty. In the Ming Dynasty, 13 emperors were buried in Changping County, Beijing, concentrated in a general cemetery. The main entrance of the cemetery is in the south, called Dahongmen. Not far from the entrance, there is a "Shen Gong Shengde Monument in Changling". From the pavilion to the north, stone pillars and statues such as lions, lions, camels, elephants, unicorns, horses, military commanders and civil servants are erected on both sides of Shinto in turn, while stone pillars and statues are no longer erected in front of the tomb. Considering the overall layout, although the direction of the mausoleum is mostly south, some of it is east or west. These graves vary in size, but the shape and layout are the same. In front of the mausoleum, it is mainly the Temple of Grace, which is basically equivalent to the Temple of Sacrifice in front of the mausoleum in the Tang and Song Dynasties. Compared with the tombs since the Han and Tang Dynasties, the biggest feature of the Ming tombs is that the mounds are not square but round, and the surrounding brick walls are called Baocheng, not in the middle of the tombs, but at the end of the whole tombs. There was Amin Building before Baocheng, and a stone tablet was built upstairs, engraved with the emperor posthumous title, which was also a new creation of the Ming Tombs. The Xuan Palace is under the treasure city, and its shape is also modeled after the palace. Taking the excavated site as an example, the Xuan Palace can be divided into a front hall, a middle hall and a back hall, and the left and right sides of the middle hall are respectively connected with attached halls. The coffins of the emperor and queen are placed on the coffins bed in the back hall.